Insecticides are substances used to kill

insect Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three pa ...

s. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and

larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. ...

e, respectively. Insecticides are used in

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people ...

medicine Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...

, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to be a major factor behind the increase in the 20th-century's agricultural productivity. Nearly all insecticides have the potential to significantly alter ecosystems; many are toxic to humans and/or animals; some become concentrated as they spread along the food chain. Insecticides can be classified into two major groups: systemic insecticides, which have residual or long term activity; and contact insecticides, which have no residual activity. The

mode of action A mode of action (MoA) describes a functional or anatomical change, resulting from the exposure of a living organism to a substance. In comparison, a mechanism of action (MOA) describes such changes at the molecular level. A mode of action is impo ...

describes how the pesticide kills or inactivates a pest. It provides another way of classifying insecticides. Mode of action can be important in understanding whether an insecticide will be toxic to unrelated species, such as fish, birds and mammals. Insecticides may be repellent or non-repellent. Social insects such as ants cannot detect non-repellents and readily crawl through them. As they return to the nest they take insecticide with them and transfer it to their nestmates. Over time, this eliminates all of the ants including the queen. This is slower than some other methods, but usually completely eradicates the ant colony. Insecticides are distinct from non-insecticidal repellents, which repel but do not kill.

Type of activity

Systemic insecticides

Systemic insecticides become incorporated and distributed systemically throughout the whole plant. When insects feed on the plant, they ingest the insecticide. Systemic insecticides produced by

transgenic A transgene is a gene that has been transferred naturally, or by any of a number of genetic engineering techniques, from one organism to another. The introduction of a transgene, in a process known as transgenesis, has the potential to change the ...

plants are called plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs). For instance, a gene that codes for a specific ''

Bacillus thuringiensis ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (or Bt) is a gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide. ''B. thuringiensis'' also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterf ...

'' biocidal protein was introduced into corn (

maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American English, North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples of Mexico, indigenous ...

) and other species. The plant manufactures the protein, which kills the insect when consumed.

Contact insecticides

Contact insecticides are toxic to insects upon direct contact. These can be inorganic insecticides, which are metals and include the commonly used

sulfur Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formul ...

, and the less commonly used arsenates,

copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pink ...

and

fluorine Fluorine is a chemical element with the symbol F and atomic number 9. It is the lightest halogen and exists at standard conditions as a highly toxic, pale yellow diatomic gas. As the most electronegative reactive element, it is extremely reactiv ...

compounds. Contact insecticides can also be organic insecticides, i.e. organic chemical compounds, synthetically produced, and comprising the largest numbers of pesticides used today. Or they can be natural compounds like pyrethrum, neem oil, etc. Contact insecticides usually have no residual activity. Efficacy can be related to the quality of pesticide application, with small droplets, such as

aerosol An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air or another gas. Aerosols can be natural or anthropogenic. Examples of natural aerosols are fog or mist, dust, forest exudates, and geyser steam. Examples of anthropogen ...

s often improving performance.

Synthetic insecticides

Development

Organochlorides

The best known organochloride, DDT, was created by Swiss scientist Paul Müller. For this discovery, he was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. DDT was introduced in 1944. It functions by opening

sodium channel Sodium channels are integral membrane proteins that form ion channels, conducting sodium ions (Na+) through a cell's membrane. They belong to the superfamily of cation channels and can be classified according to the trigger that opens the chan ...

s in the insect's nerve cells. The contemporaneous rise of the chemical industry facilitated large-scale production of DDT and related chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Organophosphates

Organophosphate In organic chemistry, organophosphates (also known as phosphate esters, or OPEs) are a class of organophosphorus compounds with the general structure , a central phosphate molecule with alkyl or aromatic substituents. They can be considered ...

s are another large class of contact insecticides. These also target the insect's nervous system. Organophosphates interfere with the

enzyme Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products ...

acetylcholinesterase Acetylcholinesterase ( HGNC symbol ACHE; EC 3.1.1.7; systematic name acetylcholine acetylhydrolase), also known as AChE, AChase or acetylhydrolase, is the primary cholinesterase in the body. It is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of ac ...

and other cholinesterases, disrupting nerve impulses and killing or disabling the insect. Organophosphate insecticides and

chemical warfare Chemical warfare (CW) involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare, biological warfare and radiological warfare, which together make up CBRN, the military a ...

nerve agents (such as

sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB G-series, "B"">Nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for Nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic synthetic organophosphorus compound.tabun,

soman Soman (or GD, EA 1210, Zoman, PFMP, A-255, systematic name: ''O''-pinacolyl methylphosphonofluoridate) is an extremely toxic chemical substance. It is a nerve agent, interfering with normal functioning of the mammalian nervous system by inhibiti ...

, and VX) work in the same way. Organophosphates have a cumulative toxic effect to wildlife, so multiple exposures to the chemicals amplifies the toxicity. In the US, organophosphate use declined with the rise of substitutes.

Carbamates

Carbamate In organic chemistry, a carbamate is a category of organic compounds with the general formula and structure , which are formally derived from carbamic acid (). The term includes organic compounds (e.g., the ester ethyl carbamate), formall ...

insecticides have similar mechanisms to organophosphates, but have a much shorter duration of action and are somewhat less toxic.

Pyrethroids

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums ('' Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and '' C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and household insecticides. ...

pesticides mimic the insecticidal activity of the natural compound pyrethrin, the biopesticide found in '' Pyrethrum'' (Now ''

Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemums (), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'' in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the cent ...

'' and '' Tanacetum'') species. These compounds are nonpersistent sodium channel modulators and are less toxic than organophosphates and carbamates. Compounds in this group are often applied against household pests.

Neonicotinoids

Neonicotinoids are synthetic analogues of the natural insecticide

nicotine Nicotine is a naturally produced alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants (most predominantly in tobacco and '' Duboisia hopwoodii'') and is widely used recreationally as a stimulant and anxiolytic. As a pharmaceutical drug, it is use ...

(with much lower acute mammalian toxicity and greater field persistence). These chemicals are

acetylcholine Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Par ...

receptor

agonist An agonist is a chemical that activates a receptor to produce a biological response. Receptors are cellular proteins whose activation causes the cell to modify what it is currently doing. In contrast, an antagonist blocks the action of the ag ...

s. They are broad-spectrum systemic insecticides, with rapid action (minutes-hours). They are applied as sprays, drenches, seed and

soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Some scientific definitions distinguish ''dirt'' from ''soil'' by restricting the former ...

treatments. Treated insects exhibit leg tremors, rapid wing motion, stylet withdrawal (

aphid Aphids are small sap-sucking insects and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white woolly aphids. A t ...

s), disoriented movement, paralysis and death. Imidacloprid may be the most common. It has recently come under scrutiny for allegedly pernicious effects on honeybees and its potential to increase the susceptibility of rice to

planthopper A planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha, in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha, a group exceeding 12,500 described species worldwide. The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environmen ...

attacks.

Phenylpyrazoles

Phenylpyrazole insecticides, such as

fipronil Fipronil is a broad-spectrum insecticide that belongs to the phenylpyrazole chemical family. Fipronil disrupts the insect central nervous system by blocking the ligand-gated ion channel of the GABAA receptor and glutamate-gated chloride (GluC ...

are a class of synthetic insecticides that operate by interfering with GABA receptors.

Butenolides

Butenolide

pesticide Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests. This includes herbicide, insecticide, nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect repellent, animal repellent, microbicide, fungicide, and ...

s are a novel group of chemicals, similar to neonicotinoids in their mode of action, that have so far only one representative:

flupyradifurone } Flupyradifurone is a systemic butenolide insecticide developed by Bayer CropScience under the name Sivanto. Flupyradifurone protects crops from sap-feeding pests such as aphids and is safer for non-target organisms compared to other insecticides. ...

. They are

receptor

s, like neonicotinoids, but with a different pharmacophore. They are broad-spectrum systemic insecticides, applied as sprays, drenches, seed and

treatments. Although the classic risk assessment considered this insecticide group (and flupyradifurone specifically) safe for

bee Bees are winged insects closely related to wasps and ants, known for their roles in pollination and, in the case of the best-known bee species, the western honey bee, for producing honey. Bees are a monophyletic lineage within the superfami ...

s, novel research has raised concern on their lethal and sublethal effects, alone or in combination with other chemicals or environmental factors.

Ryanoids/diamides

Diamides are synthetic

ryanoid Ryanoids are a class of insecticides which share the same mechanism of action as the alkaloid ryanodine. Ryanodine is a naturally occurring insecticide isolated from '' Ryania speciosa''. Ryanoids include natural chemicals which are closely relate ...

analogues with the same mode of action as ryanodine, a naturally occurring insecticide extracted from ''Ryania speciosa'' ( Salicaceae). They bind to

calcium channel A calcium channel is an ion channel which shows selective permeability to calcium ions. It is sometimes synonymous with voltage-gated calcium channel, although there are also ligand-gated calcium channels. Comparison tables The following tables e ...

s in cardiac and skeletal muscle, blocking nerve transmission. The first insecticide from this class to be registered was Rynaxypyr, generic name

chlorantraniliprole Chlorantraniliprole (Rynaxypyr) is an insecticide of the ryanoid classes. Chlorantraniliprole was developed world-wide by DuPont and belongs to a class of selective insecticides featuring a novel mode of action to control a range of pests belong ...

Insect growth regulators

Insect growth regulator An insect growth regulator (IGR) is a substance (chemical) that inhibits the life cycle of an insect. IGRs are typically used as insecticides to control populations of harmful insect pests such as cockroaches and fleas. Advantages Many IGRs are l ...

(IGR) is a term coined to include insect

hormone A hormone (from the Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs by complex biological processes to regulate physiology and behavior. Hormones are required ...

mimics and an earlier class of chemicals, the benzoylphenyl ureas, which inhibit

chitin Chitin ( C8 H13 O5 N)n ( ) is a long-chain polymer of ''N''-acetylglucosamine, an amide derivative of glucose. Chitin is probably the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature (behind only cellulose); an estimated 1 billion tons of chit ...

(exoskeleton)

biosynthesis Biosynthesis is a multi-step, enzyme-catalyzed process where substrates are converted into more complex products in living organisms. In biosynthesis, simple compounds are modified, converted into other compounds, or joined to form macromolecul ...

in insects Diflubenzuron is a member of the latter class, used primarily to control

caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sy ...

s that are pests. The most successful insecticides in this class are the juvenoids ( juvenile hormone analogues). Of these, methoprene is most widely used. It has no observable acute toxicity in rats and is approved by

World Health Organization The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level o ...

(WHO) for use in drinking water

cistern A cistern (Middle English ', from Latin ', from ', "box", from Greek ', "basket") is a waterproof receptacle for holding liquids, usually water. Cisterns are often built to catch and store rainwater. Cisterns are distinguished from wells by ...

s to combat

malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. ...

. Most of its uses are to combat insects where the adult is the pest, including

mosquito Mosquitoes (or mosquitos) are members of a group of almost 3,600 species of small flies within the family Culicidae (from the Latin ''culex'' meaning " gnat"). The word "mosquito" (formed by ''mosca'' and diminutive ''-ito'') is Spanish for "li ...

es, several

fly Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced ...

species, and

flea Flea, the common name for the order Siphonaptera, includes 2,500 species of small flightless insects that live as external parasites of mammals and birds. Fleas live by ingesting the blood of their hosts. Adult fleas grow to about long, ...

s. Two very similar products,

hydroprene Hydroprene is an insect growth regulator used as an insecticide. It is used against cockroaches, beetles, and moths. Products using hydroprene include Gencor, Gentrol, and Raid Max Sterilizer Discs. Hydropene is a synthetic juvenile hormone Juve ...

and kinoprene, are used for controlling species such as

cockroach Cockroaches (or roaches) are a paraphyletic group of insects belonging to Blattodea, containing all members of the group except termites. About 30 cockroach species out of 4,600 are associated with human habitats. Some species are well-known ...

es and white flies. Methoprene was registered with the EPA in 1975. Virtually no reports of resistance have been filed. A more recent type of IGR is the

ecdysone Ecdysone is a prohormone of the major insect molting hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone, which is secreted from the prothoracic glands. It is of steroidal structure. Insect molting hormones (ecdysone and its homologues) are generally called ecdysteroids. E ...

agonist tebufenozide (MIMIC), which is used in

forestry Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests, woodlands, and associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. ...

and other applications for control of caterpillars, which are far more sensitive to its hormonal effects than other insect orders.

Biological pesticides

More natural insecticides have been interesting targets of research for two main reasons, firstly because the most common chemicals are losing effectiveness, and secondly due to their toxic effects upon the environment. Many organic compounds are already produced by plants for the purpose of defending the host plant from predation, and can be turned toward human ends. Four extracts of plants are in commercial use: pyrethrum, rotenone,

neem oil Neem oil, also known as margosa oil, is a vegetable oil pressed from the fruits and seeds of the neem (''Azadirachta indica''), a tree which is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and has been introduced to many other areas in the tropics. It ...

, and various

essential oil An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the o ...

s A trivial case is tree rosin, which is a natural insecticide. Specifically, the production of oleoresin by conifer species is a component of the defense response against insect attack and fungal

pathogen In biology, a pathogen ( el, πάθος, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of") in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a g ...

infection. Many fragrances, e.g. oil of wintergreen, are in fact antifeedants.

Other biological approaches

Plant-incorporated protectants

= ''Bacillus thuringiensis''

= Transgenic crops that act as insecticides began in 1996 with a genetically modified potato that produced

Cry protein Delta endotoxins (δ-endotoxins) are pore-forming toxins produced by ''Bacillus thuringiensis ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' (or Bt) is a gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide. ''B. thu ...

s, derived from the bacterium ''

'', which is toxic to beetle

larvae A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. T ...

such as the Colorado potato beetle.

= RNA interference

= The technique has been expanded to include the use of RNAi insecticides which fatally silence crucial insect genes. (RNAi likely originally evolved as a defense against

virus A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. Since Dmitri Ivanovsk ...

es.) This was first demonstrated by Baum et al 2007, who incorporated a

V-APTase Vacuolar-type ATPase (V-ATPase) is a highly conserved evolutionarily ancient enzyme with remarkably diverse functions in eukaryotic organisms. V-ATPases acidify a wide array of intracellular organelles and pumps protons across the plasma ...

as a protectant into transgenic ''Zea mays'' and demonstrated effectiveness against ''

Diabrotica virgifera virgifera The Western corn rootworm, ''Diabrotica virgifera virgifera'', is one of the most devastating corn rootworm species in North America, especially in the midwestern corn-growing areas such as Iowa. A related species, the Northern corn rootworm, '' ...

''. This suggests oral delivery against

Coleoptera Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describe ...

as a whole will probably be effective. Similar studies have followed Baum's technique to protect with dsRNAs targeting detox, especially insect P450s. Bolognesi et al 2012 is one of these following studies, however they found dsRNA to be processed into siRNAs by the plants (in this case '' Solanum tuberosum'') themselves, and siRNAs to be less effectively taken up by insect cells. Bolognesi therefore produced additional transgenic ''S. tuberosum'' plants which instead produced ''longer'' dsRNAs ''in the

chloroplast A chloroplast () is a type of membrane-bound organelle known as a plastid that conducts photosynthesis mostly in plant and algal cells. The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, converts it, and stores it i ...

s'', which naturally accumulate dsRNAs but do not have the machinery to convert them to siRNAs. Midgut cells in many larvae take up the molecules and help spread the signal. The technology can target only insects that have the silenced sequence, as was demonstrated when a particular RNAi affected only one of four fruit fly species. The technique is expected to replace many other insecticides, which are losing effectiveness due to the spread of

insecticide resistance Pesticide resistance describes the decreased susceptibility of a pest population to a pesticide that was previously effective at controlling the pest. Pest species evolve pesticide resistance via natural selection: the most resistant specimens su ...

= Venom

= Spider venom peptide

fraction A fraction (from la, fractus, "broken") represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts. When spoken in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for example, one-half, eight ...

s are another class of potential transgenic traits which could expand the

repertoire and help to answer the resistance question.

Enzymes

Many plants exude substances to repel insects. Premier examples are substances activated by the

myrosinase. This enzyme converts

glucosinolate Glucosinolates are natural components of many pungent plants such as mustard, cabbage, and horseradish. The pungency of those plants is due to mustard oils produced from glucosinolates when the plant material is chewed, cut, or otherwise damage ...

s to various compounds that are toxic to herbivorous insects. One product of this enzyme is

allyl isothiocyanate Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) is an organosulfur compound (formula CH2CHCH2NCS). This colorless oil is responsible for the pungent taste of mustard, radish, horseradish, and wasabi. This pungency and the lachrymatory effect of AITC are mediated thr ...

, the pungent ingredient in

horseradish sauce Horseradish (''Armoracia rusticana'', syn. ''Cochlearia armoracia'') is a perennial plant of the family Brassicaceae (which also includes mustard, wasabi, broccoli, cabbage, and radish). It is a root vegetable, cultivated and used worldwide as ...

The myrosinase is released only upon crushing the flesh of horseradish. Since allyl isothiocyanate is harmful to the plant as well as the insect, it is stored in the harmless form of the glucosinolate, separate from the myrosinase enzyme.

Bacterial

'' is a bacterial disease that affects

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order of insects that includes butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 families and 46 superfamilies, 10 percent of the total described speci ...

ns and some other insects. Toxins produced by strains of this bacterium are used as a

larvicide A larvicide (alternatively larvacide) is an insecticide that is specifically targeted against the larval life stage of an insect. Their most common use is against mosquitoes. Larvicides may be contact poisons, stomach poisons, growth regulators, o ...

against

s, beetles, and mosquitoes. Toxins from '' Saccharopolyspora spinosa'' are isolated from fermentations and sold as

Spinosad Spinosad is an insecticide based on chemical compounds found in the bacterial species '' Saccharopolyspora spinosa''. The genus ''Saccharopolyspora'' was discovered in 1985 in isolates from crushed sugarcane. The bacteria produce yellowish-pink ae ...

. Because these toxins have little effect on other

organism In biology, an organism () is any living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells ( cell theory). Organisms are classified by taxonomy into groups such as multicellular animals, plants, and fu ...

s, they are considered more

environmentally friendly Environment friendly processes, or environmental-friendly processes (also referred to as eco-friendly, nature-friendly, and green), are sustainability and marketing terms referring to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies that cl ...

than synthetic pesticides. The toxin from ''B. thuringiensis'' ( Bt toxin) has been incorporated directly into plants through the use of

genetic engineering Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including ...

Other

Other biological insecticides include products based on entomopathogenic fungi (e.g., ''

Beauveria bassiana ''Beauveria bassiana'' is a fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world and acts as a parasite on various arthropod species, causing white muscardine disease; it thus belongs to the entomopathogenic fungi. It is used as a biologic ...

'', '' Metarhizium anisopliae''),

nematode The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant- parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a bro ...

s (e.g., ''

Steinernema feltiae Steinernema is a genus of nematodes in the family of Steinernematidae. The genus ''Steinernema'' is named after the nematologist Gotthold Steiner. Life cycle Species form symbiotic relationships with ''Xenorhabdus'' and ''Photorhabdus'' bac ...

'') and

es (e.g., ''

Cydia pomonella The codling moth (''Cydia pomonella'') is a member of the Lepidopteran family Tortricidae. They are major pests to agricultural crops, mainly fruits such as apples and pears. Because the larvae are not able to feed on leaves, they are highly ...

'' granulovirus).

Synthetic insecticide and natural insecticides

A major emphasis of organic chemistry is the development of chemical tools to enhance agricultural productivity. Insecticides represent a major area of emphasis. Many of the major insecticides are inspired by biological analogues. Many others are not found in nature.

Environmental harm

Effects on nontarget species

Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake an insecticide granule on the ground for food and eat it.Palmer, WE, Bromley, PT, and Brandenburg, RL
Wildlife & pesticides - Peanuts
North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved on 14 October 2007. Sprayed insecticide may drift from the area to which it is applied and into wildlife areas, especially when it is sprayed aerially.

DDT

The development of DDT was motivated by desire to replace more dangerous or less effective alternatives. DDT was introduced to replace

lead Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cut, ...

and

arsenic Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal. Arsenic is a metalloid. It has various allotropes, b ...

-based compounds, which were in widespread use in the early 1940s. DDT was brought to public attention by Rachel Carson's book '' Silent Spring''. One side-effect of DDT is to reduce the thickness of shells on the eggs of predatory birds. The shells sometimes become too thin to be viable, reducing bird populations. This occurs with DDT and related compounds due to the process of

bioaccumulation Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance at a rate faster than that at which the substance is lost or eliminated ...

, wherein the chemical, due to its stability and fat solubility, accumulates in organisms'

fatty tissue Adipose tissue, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. In addition to adipocytes, adipose tissue contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular e ...

s. Also, DDT may biomagnify, which causes progressively higher concentrations in the body fat of animals farther up the food chain. The near-worldwide ban on agricultural use of DDT and related chemicals has allowed some of these birds, such as the

peregrine falcon The peregrine falcon (''Falco peregrinus''), also known as the peregrine, and historically as the duck hawk in North America, is a cosmopolitan bird of prey (raptor) in the family Falconidae. A large, crow-sized falcon, it has a blue-grey bac ...

, to recover in recent years. A number of organochlorine pesticides have been banned from most uses worldwide. Globally they are controlled via the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants. These include: aldrin, chlordane, DDT,

dieldrin Dieldrin is an organochloride originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin, which reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to ...

, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene.

Runoff and Percolation

Solid bait and liquid insecticides, especially if improperly applied in a location, get moved by water flow. Often, this happens through nonpoint sources where runoff carries insecticides in to larger bodies of water. As snow melts and rainfall moves over and through the ground, the water picks applied insecticides and deposits them in to larger bodies of water, rivers, wetlands, underground sources of previously potable water, and percolates in to watersheds. This runoff and percolation of insecticides can effect the quality of water sources, harming the natural ecology and thus, indirectly effect human populations through biomagnification and bioaccumulation.

Pollinator decline

Insecticides can kill bees and may be a cause of

pollinator decline Pollinator decline is the reduction in abundance of insect and other animal pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide that began being recorded at the end of the 20th century. Multiple lines of evidence exist for the reduction of wild pollinato ...

, the loss of bees that pollinate plants, and colony collapse disorder (CCD), in which worker bees from a beehive or

Western honey bee The western honey bee or European honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') is the most common of the 7–12 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name ''Apis'' is Latin for "bee", and ''mellifera'' is the Latin for "honey-bearing" or "honey carrying" ...

colony abruptly disappear. Loss of pollinators means a reduction in

crop yield In agriculture, the yield is a measurement of the amount of a crop grown, or product such as wool, meat or milk produced, per unit area of land. The seed ratio is another way of calculating yields. Innovations, such as the use of fertilizer, the c ...

s. Sublethal doses of insecticides (i.e. imidacloprid and other neonicotinoids) affect bee foraging behavior. However, research into the causes of CCD was inconclusive as of June 2007.

Bird decline

Besides the effects of direct consumption of insecticides, populations of insectivorous birds decline due to the collapse of their prey populations. Spraying of especially wheat and corn in Europe is believed to have caused an 80 per cent decline in flying insects, which in turn has reduced local bird populations by one to two thirds.

Alternatives

Instead of using chemical insecticides to avoid crop damage caused by insects, there are many alternative options available now that can protect farmers from major economic losses. Some of them are: #

Breeding Breeding is sexual reproduction that produces offspring, usually animals or plants. It can only occur between a male and a female animal or plant. Breeding may refer to: * Animal husbandry, through selected specimens such as dogs, horses, and r ...

crops resistant, or at least less susceptible, to pest attacks. # Releasing predators,

parasitoid In evolutionary ecology, a parasitoid is an organism that lives in close association with its host (biology), host at the host's expense, eventually resulting in the death of the host. Parasitoidism is one of six major evolutionarily stable str ...

s, or

s to control pest populations as a form of biological control. # Chemical control like releasing pheromones into the field to confuse the insects into not being able to find mates and reproduce. #

Integrated Pest Management Integrated pest management (IPM), also known as integrated pest control (IPC) is a broad-based approach that integrates both chemical and non-chemical practices for economic control of pests. IPM aims to suppress pest populations below the eco ...

: using multiple techniques in tandem to achieve optimal results. # Push-pull technique: intercropping with a "push" crop that repels the pest, and planting a "pull" crop on the boundary that attracts and traps it.

Examples

Organochlorides

* Aldrin * Chlordane * Chlordecone * DDT *

Dieldrin Dieldrin is an organochloride originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin, which reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to ...

Endosulfan Endosulfan is an off- patent organochlorine insecticide and acaricide that is being phased out globally. It became a highly controversial agrichemical due to its acute toxicity, potential for bioaccumulation, and role as an endocrine disruptor. B ...

* Endrin * Heptachlor *

Hexachlorobenzene Hexachlorobenzene, or perchlorobenzene, is an organochloride with the molecular formula C6Cl6. It is a fungicide formerly used as a seed treatment, especially on wheat to control the fungal disease bunt. It has been banned globally under the Sto ...

Lindane Lindane, also known as ''gamma''-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH), gammaxene, Gammallin and benzene hexachloride (BHC), is an organochlorine chemical and an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane that has been used both as an agricultural insecticide and ...

(gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane) * Methoxychlor * Mirex *

Pentachlorophenol Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is an organochlorine compound used as a pesticide and a disinfectant. First produced in the 1930s, it is marketed under many trade names. It can be found as pure PCP, or as the sodium salt of PCP, the latter of which dis ...

* TDE

Organophosphate In organic chemistry, organophosphates (also known as phosphate esters, or OPEs) are a class of organophosphorus compounds with the general structure , a central phosphate molecule with alkyl or aromatic substituents. They can be considered ...
s

* Acephate *

Azinphos-methyl Azinphos-methyl (Guthion) (also spelled azinophos-methyl) is a broad spectrum organophosphate insecticide manufactured by Bayer CropScience, Gowan Co., and Makhteshim Agan. Like other pesticides in this class, it owes its insecticidal properties ...

Bensulide Bensulide is a selective organophosphate herbicide. It is one of a few organophosphate compounds that are used as an herbicide. Most of the others are used as insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicid ...

Chlorethoxyfos Chlorethoxyfos (''O'',''O''-diethyl-''O''-(1,2,2,2-tetrachloroethyl)phosphorothioate) is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide. It is registered for the control of corn rootworms, wireworms, cutworms, seed corn ...

* Chlorpyrifos *

Chlorpyriphos-methyl Chlorpyrifos (CPS), also known as Chlorpyrifos ethyl, is an organophosphate pesticide that has been used on crops, animals, and buildings, and in other settings, to kill several pests, including insects and worms. It acts on the nervous systems ...

* Diazinon * Dichlorvos (DDVP) *

Dicrotophos Dicrotophos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides a ...

* Dimethoate * Disulfoton *

Ethoprop Ethoprophos (or ethoprop) is an organophosphate ester with the formula C8H19O2PS2. It is a clear yellow to colourless liquid that has a characteristic mercaptan-like odour. It is used as an insecticide and nematicide and it is an acetylcholinester ...

Fenamiphos Fenamiphos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides ar ...

* Fenitrothion *

Fenthion Fenthion is an organothiophosphate insecticide, avicide, and acaricide. Like most other organophosphates, its mode of action is via cholinesterase inhibition. Due to its relatively low toxicity towards humans and mammals, fenthion is listed as m ...

* Fosthiazate *

Malathion Malathion is an organophosphate insecticide which acts as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. In the USSR, it was known as carbophos, in New Zealand and Australia as maldison and in South Africa as mercaptothion. Pesticide use Malathion is a pe ...

* Methamidophos *

Methidathion Methidathion is an organophosphate insecticide; its use is banned in the European Union and USA. Methidathion has been used as an insecticide in many countries to control caterpillars of '' Indarbela quadrinotata''. In 2012, residues were found ...

Mevinphos Mevinphos is an organophosphate insecticide that acts as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor to control insects in a wide range of crops. It is most commonly used for the control of chewing and sucking insects, as well as spider mites. Common synon ...

Monocrotophos Monocrotophos is an organophosphate insecticide. It is acutely toxic to birds and humans, so it has been banned in the U.S., the E.U., India and many other countries. Uses Monocrotophos is principally used in agriculture, as a relatively cheap pe ...

* Naled *

Omethoate Omethoate (C5H12NO4PS) is a systemic organophosphorous insecticide and acaricide available as a soluble concentrate. It is used to control insects and mites in horticulture and agriculture, as well as in the home garden. It is an irritant to the ...

Oxydemeton-methyl Oxydemeton-methyl is an organothiophosphate insecticide. It is primarily used to control aphids, mite Mites are small arachnids (eight-legged arthropods). Mites span two large orders of arachnids, the Acariformes and the Parasitiformes, w ...

Parathion Parathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion and locally known as "Folidol", is an organophosphate insecticide and acaricide. It was originally developed by IG Farben in the 1940s. It is highly toxic to non-target organisms, inclu ...

* Parathion-methyl * Phorate * Phosalone *

Phosmet Phosmet is a phthalimide-derived, non-systemic, organophosphate insecticide used on plants and animals. It is mainly used on apple trees for control of codling moth, though it is also used on a wide range of fruit crops, ornamentals, and vines fo ...

* Phostebupirim * Phoxim *

Pirimiphos-methyl Pirimiphos-methyl, marketed as Actellic, and Sybol is a phosphorothioate used as an insecticide. It was originally developed by Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd., now Syngenta, at their Jealott's Hill site and first marketed in 1977, ten years ...

* Profenofos *

Terbufos Terbufos is a chemical compound used in insecticides and nematicides. Terbufos is part of the chemical family of organophosphates. It is a clear, colourless to pale yellow or reddish-brown liquid and sold commercially as granulate. History Terb ...

* Tetrachlorvinphos * Tribufos * Trichlorfon

Carbamate In organic chemistry, a carbamate is a category of organic compounds with the general formula and structure , which are formally derived from carbamic acid (). The term includes organic compounds (e.g., the ester ethyl carbamate), formall ...
s

* Aldicarb * Bendiocarb *

Carbofuran Carbofuran is a carbamate pesticide, widely used around the world to control insects on a wide variety of field crops, including potatoes, corn and soybeans. It is a systemic insecticide, which means that the plant absorbs it through the root ...

* Carbaryl * Dioxacarb *

Fenobucarb Fenobucarb is a carbamate insecticide, also widely known as BPMC. A pale yellow or pale red liquid, insoluble in water; used as an agricultural insecticide, especially for control of Hemipteran pests, on rice and cotton Cotton is a soft, f ...

Fenoxycarb Fenoxycarb is a carbamate insect growth regulator. It has a low toxicity for bees, birds, and humans, but is toxic to fish. The oral LD50 for rats is greater than . Fenoxycarb is non-neurotoxic and does not have the same mode of action as other ...

* Isoprocarb * Methomyl * Oxamyl *

Propoxur Propoxur (Baygon) is a carbamate non-systemic insecticide introduced in 1959 with a fast knockdown and long residual effect used against turf, forestry, and household pests and fleas. It is also used in pest control for other domestic animals, ''A ...

* 2-(1-Methylpropyl)phenyl methylcarbamate

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums ('' Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and '' C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and household insecticides. ...
s

* Allethrin * Bifenthrin * Cyhalothrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin *

Cypermethrin Cypermethrin (CP) is a synthetic pyrethroid used as an insecticide in large-scale commercial agricultural applications as well as in consumer products for domestic purposes. It behaves as a fast-acting neurotoxin in insects. It is easily degrade ...

Cyfluthrin Cyfluthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide and common household pesticide. It is a complex organic compound and the commercial product is sold as a mixture of isomers. Like most pyrethroids (MoA 3a), it is highly toxic to fish and invertebrates, but ...

* Deltamethrin * Etofenprox * Fenvalerate *

Permethrin Permethrin is a medication and an insecticide. As a medication, it is used to treat scabies and lice. It is applied to the skin as a cream or lotion. As an insecticide, it can be sprayed onto clothing or mosquito nets to kill the insects th ...

* Phenothrin *

Prallethrin Prallethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide. Prallethrin 1.6% w/w liquid vaporizer is a repellent insecticide which is generally used for the control of mosquitoes in the household. Products It is marketed as a mosquito repellent by Godrej as "Goo ...

* Resmethrin *

Tetramethrin Tetramethrin is a potent synthetic insecticide in the pyrethroid family. It is a white crystalline solid with a melting point The melting point (or, rarely, liquefaction point) of a substance is the temperature at which it changes state from ...

* Tralomethrin * Transfluthrin

Neonicotinoids

* Acetamiprid * Clothianidin * Dinotefuran * Imidacloprid * Nithiazine *

Thiacloprid Thiacloprid is an insecticide of the neonicotinoid class. Its mechanism of action is similar to other neonicotinoids and involves disruption of the insect's nervous system by stimulating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Thiacloprid was develo ...

* Thiamethoxam

Ryanoid Ryanoids are a class of insecticides which share the same mechanism of action as the alkaloid ryanodine. Ryanodine is a naturally occurring insecticide isolated from '' Ryania speciosa''. Ryanoids include natural chemicals which are closely relate ...
s

Chlorantraniliprole Chlorantraniliprole (Rynaxypyr) is an insecticide of the ryanoid classes. Chlorantraniliprole was developed world-wide by DuPont and belongs to a class of selective insecticides featuring a novel mode of action to control a range of pests belong ...

Cyantraniliprole Cyantraniliprole is an insecticide of the ryanoid class, specifically a diamide insecticide (IRAC MoA group 28). It is approved for use in the United States, Canada, China, and India. Because of its uncommon mechanism of action as a ryanoid, ...

Flubendiamide Flubendiamide is a synthetic petrochemical pesticide in of the ryanoid class which acts at receptors in insect muscles. The chemical contains a perfluorinated functional group. Regulation The United States Environmental Protection Agency registe ...

Insect growth regulators

Benzoylurea Benzoylureas are chemical derivatives of ''N''-benzoyl-''N′''-phenylurea (benzoylurea). They are best known for their use as insecticides. They act as insect growth regulators by inhibiting synthesis of chitin in the insect's body. One o ...

s ** Diflubenzuron **

Flufenoxuron Flufenoxuron is an insecticide that belongs to the benzoylurea chitin synthesis inhibitor group, which also includes diflubenzuron, triflumuron, and lufenuron. Flufenoxuron is a white crystalline powder. It is insoluble in water, is not flammab ...

Cyromazine Cyromazine is a triazine insect growth regulator used as an insecticide. It is a cyclopropyl derivative of melamine. Cyromazine works by affecting the nervous system of the immature larval stages of certain insects.Methoprene *

Hydroprene Hydroprene is an insect growth regulator used as an insecticide. It is used against cockroaches, beetles, and moths. Products using hydroprene include Gencor, Gentrol, and Raid Max Sterilizer Discs. Hydropene is a synthetic juvenile hormone Juve ...

* Tebufenozide

Derived from plants or microbes

* Anabasine *

Anethole Anethole (also known as anise camphor) is an organic compound that is widely used as a flavoring substance. It is a derivative of phenylpropene, a type of aromatic compound that occurs widely in nature, in essential oils. It is in the class of phe ...

(mosquito larvae) * Annonin *

Asimina ''Asimina'' is a genus of small trees or shrubs described as a genus in 1763. ''Asimina'' is the only temperate genus in the tropical and subtropical flowering plant family, Annonaceae. ''Asimina'' has large simple leaves and large fruit. It is ...

(pawpaw tree seeds) for

lice Louse ( : lice) is the common name for any member of the clade Phthiraptera, which contains nearly 5,000 species of wingless parasitic insects. Phthiraptera has variously been recognized as an order, infraorder, or a parvorder, as a resul ...

* Azadirachtin *

Caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine chemical classification, class. It is mainly recreational drug use, used recreationally as a Nootropic, cognitive enhancer, increasing alertness and attentional perfor ...

Carapa ''Carapa'' is a genus of flowering plants in the mahogany family, Meliaceae. These are trees up to 30 meters tall occurring in tropical South America, Central America,Hogan, C. M. 2008Isthmian-Atlantic moist forests.Encyclopedia of Earth, World ...

Cinnamaldehyde Cinnamaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula(C9H8O) C6H5CH=CHCHO. Occurring naturally as predominantly the ''trans'' (''E'') isomer, it gives cinnamon its flavor and odor. It is a phenylpropanoid that is naturally synthesized by the shi ...

(very effective for killing mosquito larvae) * Cinnamon leaf oil (very effective for killing mosquito larvae) * Cinnamyl acetate (kills mosquito larvae) * Citral * Citronellol * Deguelin * Derris (active ingredient is rotenone) * '' Desmodium caudatum'' (leaves and roots) * Eucalyptol *

Eugenol Eugenol is an allyl chain-substituted guaiacol, a member of the allylbenzene class of chemical compounds. It is a colorless to pale yellow, aromatic oily liquid extracted from certain essential oils especially from clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, bas ...

(mosquito larvae) * Hinokitiol * Ivermectin *

Limonene Limonene is a colorless liquid aliphatic hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic monoterpene, and is the major component in the oil of citrus fruit peels. The -isomer, occurring more commonly in nature as the fragrance of oranges, is a flavoring a ...

Linalool Linalool () refers to two enantiomers of a naturally occurring terpene alcohol found in many flowers and spice plants. Linalool has multiple commercial applications, the majority of which are based on its pleasant scent (floral, with a touch of ...

Menthol Menthol is an organic compound, more specifically a monoterpenoid, made synthetically or obtained from the oils of corn mint, peppermint, or other mints. It is a waxy, clear or white crystalline substance, which is solid at room temperature ...

Myristicin Myristicin is a naturally occurring compound found in common herbs and spices, the most well known being nutmeg. It is an insecticide, and has been shown to enhance the effectiveness of other insecticides in combination. Myristicin is also a prec ...

* Neem ( Azadirachtin) *

Nicotine Nicotine is a naturally produced alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants (most predominantly in tobacco and '' Duboisia hopwoodii'') and is widely used recreationally as a stimulant and anxiolytic. As a pharmaceutical drug, it is use ...

Nootkatone Nootkatone is a natural organic compound, a sesquiterpenoid, and a ketone that is the most important and expensive aromatic of grapefruit, and which also occurs in other organisms. Previously, nootkatone was thought to be one of the main chemical ...

* '' Peganum harmala'', seeds (smoke from), root *

Oregano Oregano (, ; ''Origanum vulgare'') is a species of flowering plant in the mint family Lamiaceae. It was native to the Mediterranean region, but widely naturalised elsewhere in the temperate Northern Hemisphere. Oregano is a woody perennial ...

oil kills '' Rhyzopertha dominica'' (bug found in stored cereal) * Pyrethrum * '' Quassia'' (South American plant genus) * Ryanodine *

AKA Spinosyn A * Spinosyn D * Tetranortriterpenoid *

Thymol Thymol (also known as 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol, IPMP), , is a natural monoterpenoid phenol derivative of ''p''-Cymene, isomeric with carvacrol, found in oil of thyme, and extracted from '' Thymus vulgaris'' (common thyme), ajwain, and va ...

(controls varroa mites in bee colonies)

Biologicals

Bacillus sphaericus ''Lysinibacillus sphaericus'' (reclassified - previously known as ''Bacillus sphaericus'') is a Gram-positive, mesophilic, rod-shaped bacterium commonly found on soil. It can form resistant endospores that are tolerant to high temperatures, che ...

Bacillus thuringiensis aizawi
*

Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' serotype ''israelensis'' (Bti) is a group of bacteria used as biological control agents for larvae stages of certain dipterans. Bti produces toxins which are effective in killing various species of mosquitoes, fu ...

* Bacillus thuringiensis kurstakihttp://www.biocontrol.entomology.cornell.edu/pathogens/bacteria.html * Bacillus thuringiensis tenebrionis * Nuclear Polyhedrosis virus *

Granulovirus ''Betabaculovirus'' is a genus of viruses A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including b ...

Lecanicillium lecanii ''Lecanicillium lecanii'' is now an approved name of an entomopathogenic fungus species, that was previously widely known as ''Verticillium lecanii'' (Zimmerman) Viegas), but is now understood to be an anamorphic form in the ''Cordyceps'' group ...

Inorganic/mineral derived insecticides

Diatomaceous earth Diatomaceous earth (), diatomite (), or kieselgur/kieselguhr is a naturally occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that can be crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. It has a particle size ranging from more than 3 μm to l ...

Borax Borax is a salt (ionic compound), a hydrated borate of sodium, with chemical formula often written . It is a colorless crystalline solid, that dissolves in water to make a basic solution. It is commonly available in powder or granular form ...

* Boric Acid

References

External links

InsectBuzz.com
- Daily updated news on insects and their relatives, including information on insecticides and their alternatives
International Pesticide Application Research Centre (IPARC)

Pestworld.org
– Official site of the National Pest Management Association * Streaming online video about efforts to reduce insecticide use in rice in Bangladesh
on Windows Media Playeron RealPlayer

– Has a thorough explanation on how insecticides work.

Michigan State University Extension * Example of Insecticide application in th

(Japanese dry rock garden) in Lelystad, The Netherlands. * {{Authority control Biocides

Type of activity

Systemic insecticides

Contact insecticides

Synthetic insecticides

Development

Organochlorides

Organophosphates

Carbamates

Pyrethroids

Neonicotinoids

Phenylpyrazoles

Butenolides

Ryanoids/diamides

Insect growth regulators

Biological pesticides

Other biological approaches

Plant-incorporated protectants

= ''Bacillus thuringiensis''

= RNA interference

= Venom

Enzymes

Bacterial

Other

Synthetic insecticide and natural insecticides

Environmental harm

Effects on nontarget species

DDT

Runoff and Percolation

Pollinator decline

Bird decline

Alternatives

Examples

Organochlorides

Organophosphate In organic chemistry, organophosphates (also known as phosphate esters, or OPEs) are a class of organophosphorus compounds with the general structure , a central phosphate molecule with alkyl or aromatic substituents. They can be considered ...s

Carbamate In organic chemistry, a carbamate is a category of organic compounds with the general formula and structure , which are formally derived from carbamic acid (). The term includes organic compounds (e.g., the ester ethyl carbamate), formall ...s

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums ('' Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and '' C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and household insecticides. ...s

Neonicotinoids

Ryanoid Ryanoids are a class of insecticides which share the same mechanism of action as the alkaloid ryanodine. Ryanodine is a naturally occurring insecticide isolated from '' Ryania speciosa''. Ryanoids include natural chemicals which are closely relate ...s

Insect growth regulators

Derived from plants or microbes

Biologicals

Inorganic/mineral derived insecticides

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Organophosphate In organic chemistry, organophosphates (also known as phosphate esters, or OPEs) are a class of organophosphorus compounds with the general structure , a central phosphate molecule with alkyl or aromatic substituents. They can be considered ...
s

Carbamate In organic chemistry, a carbamate is a category of organic compounds with the general formula and structure , which are formally derived from carbamic acid (). The term includes organic compounds (e.g., the ester ethyl carbamate), formall ...
s

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums ('' Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and '' C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and household insecticides. ...
s

Ryanoid Ryanoids are a class of insecticides which share the same mechanism of action as the alkaloid ryanodine. Ryanodine is a naturally occurring insecticide isolated from '' Ryania speciosa''. Ryanoids include natural chemicals which are closely relate ...
s