A doctorate (from

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

''doctor'', meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate

academic degree An academic degree is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in higher education, usually at a college or university. These institutions often offer degrees at various levels, usually divided into und ...

awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' licentia docendi'' ("licence to teach"). In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific

profession A profession is a field of Work (human activity), work that has been successfully professionalized. It can be defined as a disciplined group of individuals, professionals, who adhere to ethical standards and who hold themselves out as, and are ...

. There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the

Doctor of Philosophy A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, DPhil; or ) is a terminal degree that usually denotes the highest level of academic achievement in a given discipline and is awarded following a course of Postgraduate education, graduate study and original resear ...

(PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the

humanities Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture, including Philosophy, certain fundamental questions asked by humans. During the Renaissance, the term "humanities" referred to the study of classical literature a ...

scientific Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...

disciplines. Many universities also award

honorary doctorate An honorary degree is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived all of the usual requirements. It is also known by the Latin phrases ''honoris causa'' ("for the sake of the honour") or '' ad hon ...

s to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or other contributions to the university or society.

History

Middle Ages

The term ''doctor'' derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate (Latin: ''doctoratus'') appeared in

medieval Europe In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...

as a license to teach Latin (''licentia docendi'') at a

university A university () is an educational institution, institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several Discipline (academia), academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly ...

. Its roots can be traced to the

early church Early Christianity, otherwise called the Early Church or Paleo-Christianity, describes the historical era of the Christian religion up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Christianity spread from the Levant, across the Roman Empire, and bey ...

in which the term ''doctor'' referred to the Apostles,

Church Fathers The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical peri ...

, and other

Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible. The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the

Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

, which required the applicant to pass a test, take an

oath of allegiance An oath of allegiance is an oath whereby a subject or citizen acknowledges a duty of allegiance and swears loyalty to a monarch or a country. In modern republics, oaths are sworn to the country in general, or to the country's constitution. For ...

, and pay a fee. The

Third Council of the Lateran The Third Council of the Lateran met in Rome in March 1179. Pope Alexander III presided and 302 bishops attended. The Catholic Church regards it as the eleventh ecumenical council. By agreement reached at the Peace of Venice in 1177 the bitt ...

of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude. This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church. In 1213 the right was granted by the

pope The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...

to the

University of Paris The University of Paris (), known Metonymy, metonymically as the Sorbonne (), was the leading university in Paris, France, from 1150 to 1970, except for 1793–1806 during the French Revolution. Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated wit ...

, where it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubique docendi''). However, while the ''licentia'' continued to hold a higher prestige than the

bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Medieval Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years ...

(''baccalaureus''), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the master's degree (''magister'') and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications. According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris.

George Makdisi George Abraham Makdisi was born in Detroit, Michigan, on May 15, 1920. He died in Media, Pennsylvania, on September 6, 2002. He was a professor of oriental studies. He studied first in the United States, and later in Lebanon. He then graduated in ...

theorizes that the ''

ijazah An ''ijazah'' (, "permission", "authorization", "license"; plural: ''ijazahs'' or ''ijazat'') is a license authorizing its holder to transmit a certain text or subject, which is issued by someone already possessing such authority. It is particul ...

'' issued in early Islamic

madrasah Madrasa (, also , ; Arabic: مدرسة , ), sometimes romanized as madrasah or madrassa, is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, secular or religious (of any religion), whether for elementary education or higher learning ...

s was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European

universities A university () is an educational institution, institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several Discipline (academia), academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly ...

Alfred Guillaume Alfred Guillaume (8 November 1888 – 30 November 1965) was a British Christian Arabist, scholar of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament and Islam. Career Guillaume was born in Edmonton, Middlesex, the son of Alfred Guillaume. He took up Arabi ...

and

Syed Farid al-Attas Syed Farid Alatas ( ) is a Malaysian author and educator, serving as a professor in the Department of Sociology at the National University of Singapore. However,

Toby Huff Toby E. Huff (born April 24, 1942) is an American academic and emeritus professor at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. He was born in Portland, Maine. He was trained as a sociologist but has research interests in the history, philosophy ...

and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ''ijzazah'' and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate).

17th and 18th centuries

The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely 1652). The term "philosophy" does not refer here to the field or academic discipline of

philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...

; it is used in a broader sense under its original

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

meaning of "love of wisdom". In most of

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

, all fields (

history History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the Human history, human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some t ...

, philosophy,

social sciences Social science (often rendered in the plural as the social sciences) is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of society, societies and the Social relation, relationships among members within those societies. The term was former ...

mathematics Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, Mathematical theory, theories and theorems that are developed and Mathematical proof, proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are many ar ...

, and

natural philosophy Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin ''philosophia naturalis'') is the philosophical study of physics, that is, nature and the physical universe, while ignoring any supernatural influence. It was dominant before the develop ...

natural sciences Natural science or empirical science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer ...

) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of

liberal arts Liberal arts education () is a traditional academic course in Western higher education. ''Liberal arts'' takes the term ''skill, art'' in the sense of a learned skill rather than specifically the fine arts. ''Liberal arts education'' can refe ...

was known as the "faculty of philosophy". The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree,Park, C. (2007)
''Redefining the Doctorate''
, York, UK: The Higher Education Academy, p. 4. abbreviated as Dr. phil. (similar to Ph.D. in Anglo-American countries). Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. nat. and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. pol., similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr. med.) and law (Dr. jur.). University doctoral training was a form of

apprenticeship Apprenticeship is a system for training a potential new practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study. Apprenticeships may also enable practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulat ...

to a

guild A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association. They so ...

. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching the apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the

master's degree A master's degree (from Latin ) is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional prac ...

. University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The first women to be granted doctorates were

Juliana Morell Juliana Morell (16 February 1594 – 26 June 1653) was a Catalan Dominican nun and intellectual child prodigy. Some sources assert that she received a doctorate in canon law in Avignon in 1608. In 1941, Sylvanus Morley traced this to an 1859 mi ...

in 1608 at Lyons or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received a doctorate in

canon law Canon law (from , , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical jurisdiction, ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its membe ...

in 1608 have been discredited), Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678 at the

University of Padua The University of Padua (, UNIPD) is an Italian public research university in Padua, Italy. It was founded in 1222 by a group of students and teachers from the University of Bologna, who previously settled in Vicenza; thus, it is the second-oldest ...

, Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University, Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at Complutense University, Madrid.

Modern times

The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in

holy orders In certain Christian denominations, holy orders are the ordination, ordained ministries of bishop, priest (presbyter), and deacon, and the sacrament or rite by which candidates are ordained to those orders. Churches recognizing these orders inclu ...

. After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread. Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased the doctorate's importance. Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the NSF) is generally a prerequisite for an

academic An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of tertiary education. The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the go ...

career. However, many recipients do not work in academia. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward. The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the MD at Kings College (now

Columbia University Columbia University in the City of New York, commonly referred to as Columbia University, is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Churc ...

) after the medical school's founding in 1767. However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense. It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (MB) rather than a qualifying degree. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree. It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930. As the standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the

American Medical Association The American Medical Association (AMA) is an American professional association and lobbying group of physicians and medical students. This medical association was founded in 1847 and is headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. Membership was 271,660 ...

, established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. Professors

In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at

Yale University Yale University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701, Yale is the List of Colonial Colleges, third-oldest institution of higher education in the United Stat ...

. This differed from the MD in that the latter was a vocational "

professional degree A professional degree, formerly known in the US as a first professional degree, is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession, practice, or industry sector often meeting the academic requirements for licensure or accreditatio ...

" that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes. In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at

Durham University Durham University (legally the University of Durham) is a collegiate university, collegiate public university, public research university in Durham, England, founded by an Act of Parliament (UK), Act of Parliament in 1832 and incorporated by r ...

in 1882. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917. The first (titled a DPhil) was awarded at the

University of Oxford The University of Oxford is a collegiate university, collegiate research university in Oxford, England. There is evidence of teaching as early as 1096, making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the List of oldest un ...

. Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the

Juris Doctor A Juris Doctor, Doctor of Jurisprudence, or Doctor of Law (JD) is a graduate-entry professional degree that primarily prepares individuals to practice law. In the United States and the Philippines, it is the only qualifying law degree. Other j ...

(JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902. However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree. Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with the degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate. When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model. Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work. Now usually called higher doctorates in the United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded ''

honoris causa An honorary degree is an academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding institution) has waived all of the usual requirements. It is also known by the Latin phrases ''honoris causa'' ("for the sake of the honour") or ''ad hono ...

''. The

habilitation Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excelle ...

is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU. It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding. The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a ''

Privatdozent ''Privatdozent'' (for men) or ''Privatdozentin'' (for women), abbreviated PD, P.D. or Priv.-Doz., is an academic title conferred at some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, to someone who holds certain formal qualifi ...

'' or professor.

Types

Since the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...

, the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world. Practice varies from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles a person to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely depending on the type and the associated occupation.

Research doctorate

Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in a

peer-reviewed Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people with similar competencies as the producers of the work ( peers). It functions as a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer review ...

academic journal An academic journal (or scholarly journal or scientific journal) is a periodical publication in which Scholarly method, scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. They serve as permanent and transparent forums for the ...

. The best-known research degree in the

English-speaking world The English-speaking world comprises the 88 countries and territories in which English language, English is an official, administrative, or cultural language. In the early 2000s, between one and two billion people spoke English, making it the ...

is the

(abbreviated PhD or, at a small number of British universities, DPhil) awarded in many countries throughout the world. In the US, for instance, although the most typical research doctorate is the PhD, accounting for about 98% of the research doctorates awarded, there are more than 15 other names for research doctorates. Other research-oriented doctorates (some having a professional practice focus) include the

Doctor of Education Doctor, Doctors, The Doctor or The Doctors may refer to: Titles and occupations * Physician, a medical practitioner * Doctor (title), an academic title for the holder of a doctoral-level degree ** Doctorate ** List of doctoral degrees awarded ...

(EdD), the

Doctor of Science A Doctor of Science (; most commonly abbreviated DSc or ScD) is a science doctorate awarded in a number of countries throughout the world. Africa Algeria and Morocco In Algeria, Morocco, Libya and Tunisia, all universities accredited by the s ...

(DSc or ScD),

Doctor of Arts The Doctor of Arts (D.A.; occasionally D.Arts or Art.D. from the Latin language, Latin ''artium doctor'') is a List of academic disciplines, discipline-based terminal degree, terminal doctorate, doctoral academic degree, degree that was originall ...

(DA),

Doctor of Juridical Science A Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD; ), or a Doctor of the Science of Law (JSD; ), is a research doctorate degree in law that is equivalent to a Ph.D. degree. In most countries, it is the most advanced law degree that can be earned. Australia ...

(JSD or SJD),

Doctor of Musical Arts The doctor of musical arts (DMA) is a doctorate, doctoral academic degree in music. The DMA combines advanced studies in an applied area of specialization (usually Performance, music performance, music composition, or conducting) with graduate-le ...

(DMA),

Doctor of Professional Studies The Doctor of Professional Studies (or sometimes awarded as Doctorate in Professional Practice) (most commonly DProf, DProfPrac or ProfD, but also available as DProfSt, ProfD and DPS) is a doctoral degree for experienced professionals who wish to ...

/Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf),

Doctor of Public Health A Doctor of Public Health (abbr. DrPH, Dr.P.H. or D.P.H.; Latin ) is a doctoral degree awarded in the field of Public health, Public Health. DrPH is an advanced and terminal degree that prepares its recipients for a career in advancing public hea ...

(DrPH), Doctor of Social Science (DSSc or DSocSci),

Doctor of Management The Doctor of Management (DM or DMgt) is an applied research doctorate (or professional practice doctorate) with a degree focus in management, leadership, and organizational topics."

(DM, DMan or DMgt),

Doctor of Business Administration The Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) is a terminal degree in business administration. The DBA is classified as a research doctorate or professional doctorate depending on the granting university and country where the degree was awarded. ...

(DBA),

Doctor of Engineering The Doctor of Engineering (DEng or EngD) or Doctor of Engineering Sciences is a research doctorate in engineering and applied science. An EngD is a terminal degree similar to a PhD in engineering but applicable more in industry rather than in ac ...

(DEng, DESc, DES or EngD) the German engineering doctorate '' Doktoringenieur'' (''Dr.-Ing.''), natural science doctorate ''Doctor rerum naturalium'' ('' Dr. rer. nat.''), and economics and social science doctorate ''Doctor rerum politicarum'' ('' Dr. rer. pol.''). The UK

Doctor of Medicine A Doctor of Medicine (abbreviated MD, from the Latin language, Latin ) is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the ''MD'' denotes a professional degree of ph ...

(MD or MD (Res)) and Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) are research doctorates. The

Doctor of Theology Doctor of Theology (, abbreviated DTh, ThD, DTheol, or Dr. theol.) is a terminal degree in the academic discipline of theology. The ThD, like the ecclesiastical Doctor of Sacred Theology, is an advanced research degree equivalent to the Doctor o ...

(ThD or DTh), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT) and the Doctor of Sacred Theology (STD, or DSTh) are research doctorates in theology. Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single

thesis A thesis (: theses), or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings.International Standard ISO 7144: D ...

or dissertation, or as a portfolio of shorter project reports (

thesis by publication A thesis as a collection of articles ...

). The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners. It is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called ''viva (voce)'' in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree. Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology. Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary. Students may be admitted with a bachelor's degree in the US and the UK However, elsewhere, e.g. in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required. The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more.

Licentiate

Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications.

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...

awards the licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification. Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business. Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's. Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is usually a lower-level qualification. In Belgium, the licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the

Bologna Process file:Bologna-Prozess-Logo.svg, 96px, alt=Logo with stylized stars, Logo file:Bologna zone.svg, alt=Map of Europe, encompassing the entire Bologna zone, 256px, Bologna zone The Bologna Process is a series of ministerial meetings and agreements b ...

and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree. In France and other countries, it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process. In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i.e. similar in level to the Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree). While other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees.

Higher doctorate and post-doctoral degrees

A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard. Examples include the

(DSc or ScD),

Doctor of Divinity A Doctor of Divinity (DD or DDiv; ) is the holder of an advanced academic degree in divinity (academic discipline), divinity (i.e., Christian theology and Christian ministry, ministry or other theologies. The term is more common in the Englis ...

(DD),

Doctor of Letters Doctor of Letters (D.Litt., Litt.D., Latin: ' or '), also termed Doctor of Literature in some countries, is a terminal degree in the arts, humanities, and social sciences. In the United States, at universities such as Drew University, the degree ...

(DLitt or LittD), Doctor of Law or Laws (LLD), and

Doctor of Civil Law Doctor of Civil Law (DCL; ) is a degree offered by some universities, such as the University of Oxford, instead of the more common Doctor of Laws (LLD) degrees. At Oxford, the degree is a higher doctorate usually awarded on the basis of except ...

(DCL) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in

Scandinavia Scandinavia is a subregion#Europe, subregion of northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. It can sometimes also ...

like the Doctor Medicinae (Dr. Med.). The

teaching qualification (''facultas docendi'' or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in

Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

Liechtenstein Liechtenstein (, ; ; ), officially the Principality of Liechtenstein ( ), is a Landlocked country#Doubly landlocked, doubly landlocked Swiss Standard German, German-speaking microstate in the Central European Alps, between Austria in the east ...

Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...

, etc. The degree developed in Germany in the 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation". In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr. habil." degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil." to their research doctorate such as "Dr. phil. habil." or "Dr. rer. nat. habil." In some European universities, especially in German-speaking countries, the degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or teaching and supervising PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as

. In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the ''facultas docendi'', ''venia legendi.'' Since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as a civil servant). In many

Central and Eastern Europe Central and Eastern Europe is a geopolitical term encompassing the countries in Baltic region, Northeast Europe (primarily the Baltic states, Baltics), Central Europe (primarily the Visegrád Group), Eastern Europe, and Southeast Europe (primaril ...

countries, the degree gives ''venia legendi'', Latin for "the permission to lecture", or ''ius docendi'', "the right to teach", a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime. The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" (''doctorat d'État''), but, in 1984, it was superseded by the habilitation (''

Habilitation à diriger des recherches Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excelle ...

'', "habilitation to supervise (doctoral and post-doctoral) research", abbreviated HDR) which is the prerequisite to supervise PhDs and to apply to Full Professorships. In many countries of the previous Soviet Union (

USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

), for example the

Russian Federation Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...

there is the higher doctorate (above the title of "Candidate of Sciences"/PhD) under the title "

Doctor of Sciences A Doctor of Sciences, abbreviated д-р наук or д. н.; ; ; ; is a higher doctoral degree in the Russian Empire, Soviet Union and many Commonwealth of Independent States countries. One of the prerequisites of receiving a Doctor of Sciences ...

". While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or the equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement. In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like " DCL, ''

''", "Hon LLD", or " LittD '' h.c.''".

Professional doctorate

Depending on the country, professional doctorates may also be research degrees at the same level as

PhD A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, DPhil; or ) is a terminal degree that usually denotes the highest level of academic achievement in a given discipline and is awarded following a course of graduate study and original research. The name of the deg ...

s. The relationship between research and practice is considered important and

s with little or no research content are typically aimed at professional performance. Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of ubject nameand abbreviated using the form "D ubject abbreviation or " ubject abbreviation", or may use the more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", "

" (DPS) or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP). In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the

US Department of Education US or Us most often refers to: * ''Us'' (pronoun), the objective case of the English first-person plural pronoun ''we'' * US, an abbreviation for the United States US, U.S., Us, us, or u.s. may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Albums * ...

's National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require a minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional

licensure Occupational licensing, also called licensure, is a form of government regulation requiring a license to pursue a particular profession or vocation for compensation. It is related to occupational closure. Some claim higher public support for ...

in the discipline. The definition for a professional doctorate does not include a requirement for either a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship"). However, individual programs may have different requirements. There is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories. All of these are considered doctoral degrees. In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees. If, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of ...", etc., it is made clear that these are not doctorates. Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD). Contrariwise, for example, research doctorates like Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to a full dissertation. In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate. All doctorates in the UK and Ireland are third cycle qualifications in the

, comparable to US research doctorates. Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components, while the name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis. Professional, practitioner, or practice-based doctorates such as the DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, EdD, DBA, EngD and DAg are full academic doctorates. They are at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications" in which practice is considered important in the research context. In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17). Similarly, in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the '' Scientiae Juridicae Doctor'' (SJD), which, like the UK professional doctorates, is a research degree.

Honorary doctorate

When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or

philanthropic Philanthropy is a form of altruism that consists of "private initiatives for the public good, focusing on quality of life". Philanthropy contrasts with business initiatives, which are private initiatives for private good, focusing on material ...

efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree. Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example,

Cornell University Cornell University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university based in Ithaca, New York, United States. The university was co-founded by American philanthropist Ezra Cornell and historian and educator Andrew Dickson W ...

, the

University of Virginia The University of Virginia (UVA) is a Public university#United States, public research university in Charlottesville, Virginia, United States. It was founded in 1819 by Thomas Jefferson and contains his The Lawn, Academical Village, a World H ...

, and

Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a Private university, private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Established in 1861, MIT has played a significant role in the development of many areas of moder ...

National variations

Argentina

Argentina Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a country in the southern half of South America. It covers an area of , making it the List of South American countries by area, second-largest country in South America after Brazil, the fourt ...

the doctorate () is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director. It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution. The degree is conferred after a successful dissertation defence. In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees. Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the , an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.

Australia

The

Australian Qualifications Framework The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) specifies the standards for educational qualifications in Australia. It is administered nationally by the Australian Government's Department of Education, with oversight from the States and Terri ...

(AQF) categorizes tertiary qualifications into ten levels that are numbered from one to ten in ascending order of complexity and depth. Of these qualification levels, six are for higher education qualifications and are numbered from five to ten. Doctoral degrees occupy the highest of these levels: level ten. All doctoral degrees involve research and this is a defining characteristic of them. There are three categories of doctoral degrees recognized by the AQF: research doctorates, professional doctorates and higher doctorates. Research doctorates and professional doctorates are both completed as part of a programme of study and supervised research. Both have entry requirements of the student having a supervisor that has agreed to supervise their research, along with the student possessing an honours degree with upper second-class honours or better or a master's degree with a substantial research component. Research doctorates are typically titled Doctor of Philosophy and they are awarded on the basis of an original and significant contribution to knowledge. Professional doctorates are typically titled Doctor of (field of study) and they are awarded on the basis of an original and significant contribution to professional practice. Higher doctorates are typically titled similarly to professional doctorates and are awarded based on a submitted portfolio of research that follows a consistent theme and is internationally recognized as an original and substantive contribution to knowledge beyond that required for the awarding of a research doctorate. Typically, to be eligible to be awarded a higher doctorate a student must have completed a research doctorate at least seven to ten years prior to submitting the research portfolio used to award them a higher doctorate.

Brazil

Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a

in a related field. Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although the requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict. The admissions process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant. Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting a thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external. After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of ''Doutor'' (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e.g. ''Doutor em Direito'' (Doctor of Laws), ''Doutor em Ciências da Computação'' (Doctor of Computer Sciences), ''Doutor em Filosofia'' (Doctor of Philosophy), ''Doutor em Economia'' (Doctor of Economics), ''Doutor em Engenharia'' (Doctor of Engineering) or ''Doutor em Medicina'' (Doctor of Medicine). The generic title of ''Doutor em Ciências'' (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.) All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the Brazilian constitution). Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (''Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico'') and CAPES (''Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior''). Personal scholarships are provided by the various FAP's (''Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa'') at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of

São Paulo São Paulo (; ; Portuguese for 'Paul the Apostle, Saint Paul') is the capital of the São Paulo (state), state of São Paulo, as well as the List of cities in Brazil by population, most populous city in Brazil, the List of largest cities in the ...

, FAPERJ in the state of

Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the capital of the Rio de Janeiro (state), state of Rio de Janeiro. It is the List of cities in Brazil by population, second-most-populous city in Brazil (after São Paulo) and the Largest cities in the America ...

and FAPEMIG in the state of

Minas Gerais Minas Gerais () is one of the 27 federative units of Brazil, being the fourth largest state by area and the second largest in number of inhabitants with a population of 20,539,989 according to the 2022 Brazilian census, 2022 census. Located in ...

. Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between US$500 and $1000. A degree of ''Doutor'' usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US

assistant professor Assistant professor is an academic rank just below the rank of an associate professor used in universities or colleges, mainly in the United States, Canada, Japan, and South Korea. Overview This position is generally taken after earning a doct ...

. Progression to full professorship, known as ''Professor Titular'' requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years. In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships. In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam. In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e.g. "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students.

Denmark

Denmark Denmark is a Nordic countries, Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark,, . also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the Autonomous a ...

offers two types of "doctorate"-like degrees: #A three-year ph.d. degree program, which replaced the equivalent ''licentiat'' in 1992, and does not grant the holder the right to the title ''dr.'' or ''doktor''. At the same time, a minor, two-year research training program, leading to a title of ''"magister"'', was phased out to meet the international standards of the

. #A 'full' doctor's degree (e.g. ''dr.phil.'', ''Doctor Philosophiae'', for humanistic and STEM subjects) – the higher doctorate – introduced in 1479. The second part of the title communicates the field of study – e.g. ''dr.scient'' (in the sciences), ''dr.jur'' (in law), ''dr.theol'' (in

theology Theology is the study of religious belief from a Religion, religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an Discipline (academia), academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itse ...

). For the ph.d. degree, the candidates (ph.d. students or fellows) – who are required to have a master's degree – enroll at a ph.d. school at a university and participate in a research training program, at the end of which they each submit a thesis and defend it orally at a formal

disputation Disputation is a genre of literature involving two contenders who seek to establish a resolution to a problem or establish the superiority of something. An example of the latter is in Sumerian disputation poems. In the scholastic system of e ...

. In the disputation, the candidates defend their theses against three official opponents, and may take opponents or questions from those present in the

auditorium An auditorium is a room built to enable an audience to hear and watch performances. For movie theaters, the number of auditoriums is expressed as the number of screens. Auditoriums can be found in entertainment venues, community halls, and t ...

''(ex auditorio)''. For the higher doctorate, the candidate (referred to as ''præses'') is required to submit a thesis of major scientific significance, and to proceed to defend it orally against two official opponents, as well as against any and all opponents from the auditorium (''ex auditorio'') – no matter how long the proceedings take. The official opponents are required to be full professors. The candidate is required to have a master's degree, but not necessarily a ph.d. The ph.d. was introduced as a separate title from the higher doctorate in 1992 as part of the transition to a new degree structure, since the changes in the degree system would otherwise leave a significant amount of academics without immediately recognizable qualifications in international settings. The original vision was purported to be to phase out the higher doctorate in favor of the ph.d. (or merge the two), but so far, there are no signs of this happening. Many Danish academics with permanent positions wrote ph.d. dissertations in the 90s when the system was new, since at that time, a ph.d. degree or equivalent qualifications began to be required for certain academic positions in Denmark. Until the late 20th century, the higher doctorate was a condition for attaining full professorship; it is no longer required ''per se'' for any positions, but is considered amply equivalent to the ph.d. when applying for academic positions.

Egypt

In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by

Al-Azhar University The Al-Azhar University ( ; , , ) is a public university in Cairo, Egypt. Associated with Al-Azhar Al-Sharif in Islamic Cairo, it is Egypt's oldest degree-granting university and is known as one of the most prestigious universities for Islamic ...

est. 970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\

Habilitation Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excelle ...

). The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M.D.) is equivalent to the Ph.D. degree. To earn an M.D. in a science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M.Sc.) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M.Sc. degree in Egypt) before applying. The M.D. degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation. It takes on average three to five years. Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate. After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn the M.B. B.Ch. degree, which is equivalent to a US MD degree. They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty. The Egyptian M.D. degree is written using the name of one's specialty. For example, M.D. (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in

Geriatrics Geriatrics, or geriatric medicine, is a medical specialty focused on addressing the unique health needs of older adults. The term ''geriatrics'' originates from the Greek γέρων ''geron'' meaning "old man", and ιατρός ''iatros'' mean ...

, which is equivalent to a Ph.D. in Geriatrics.

Finland

The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies is a master's degree or equivalent. All universities have the right to award doctorates. The ''ammattikorkeakoulu'' institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees. The student must: * Demonstrate understanding of their field and its meaning, while preparing to use scientific or scholarly study in their field, creating new knowledge. * Obtain a good understanding of development, basic problems and research methods * Obtain such understanding of the general theory of science and letters and such knowledge of neighbouring research fields that they are able to follow the development of these fields. The way to show that these general requirements have been met is: * Complete graduate coursework. * Demonstrate critical and independent thought * Prepare and publicly defend a dissertation (a

monograph A monograph is generally a long-form work on one (usually scholarly) subject, or one aspect of a subject, typically created by a single author or artist (or, sometimes, by two or more authors). Traditionally it is in written form and published a ...

or a compilation thesis of peer-reviewed articles). In fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by works and/or performances as accepted by the faculty. Entrance to a doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors. Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict

numerus clausus ''Numerus clausus'' ("closed number" in Latin) is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the ''numerus clausus'' is simply to limit the number of students to the maximu ...

is applied. Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor. If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission. The professor may recruit students to their group. Formal acceptance does not imply funding. The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through private scholarships. Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters. Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined. Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework. The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties or individual professors. In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 ECTS. The duration of graduate studies varies. It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon. The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge. The dissertation can either be a monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles. Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research. When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university. During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications. After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis. When granting this permission, the faculty names the ''opponent'' for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate. In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that the printed dissertation hang on a cord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days prior to for the dissertation defence. The doctoral dissertation takes place in public. The opponent and the candidate conduct a formal debate, usually wearing

white tie White tie, also called full evening dress or a dress suit, is the most formal evening Western dress code. For men, it consists of a black tail coat (alternatively referred to as a dress coat, usually by tailors) worn over a white dress shir ...

, under the supervision of the thesis supervisor. Family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community customarily attend the defence. After a formal entrance, the candidate begins with an approximately 20-minute popular lecture (''lectio praecursoria''), that is meant to introduce laymen to the thesis topic. The opponent follows with a short talk on the topic, after which the pair critically discuss the dissertation. The proceedings take two to three hours. At the end the opponent presents their final statement and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it. Any member of the public then has an opportunity to raise questions, although this is rare. Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the candidate drink coffee with the public. Usually, the attendees of the defence are given the printed dissertation. In the evening, the passed candidate hosts a dinner () in honour of the opponent. Usually, the candidate invites their family, colleagues and collaborators. Doctoral graduates are often Doctors of Philosophy (''filosofian tohtori''), but many fields retain their traditional titles: Doctor of Medicine (''lääketieteen tohtori''), Doctor of Science in technology (''tekniikan tohtori''), Doctor of Science in arts (Art and Design), etc. The doctorate is a formal requirement for a docenture or professor's position, although these in practice require

postdoctoral research A postdoctoral fellow, postdoctoral researcher, or simply postdoc, is a person professionally conducting research after the completion of their doctoral studies (typically a PhD). Postdocs most commonly, but not always, have a temporary acade ...

and further experience. Exceptions may be granted by the university governing board, but this is uncommon, and usually due to other work and expertise considered equivalent.

France

History Before 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the State doctorate (''doctorat d'État'', "DrE", the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (''doctorat de troisième cycle'', also called doctorate of specialty, ''doctorat de spécialité'', created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the

diploma A diploma is a document awarded by an educational institution (such as a college or university) testifying the recipient has graduated by successfully completing their courses of studies. Historically, it has also referred to a charter or offi ...

of doctor-engineer (''diplôme de docteur-ingénieur'' created in 1923), for technical research. During the first half of the 20th century, following the submission of two theses (primary thesis, ''thèse principale'', and secondary thesis, ''thèse complémentaire'') to the Faculty of Letters (in France, "letters" is equivalent to "

") at the

, the doctoral candidate was awarded the ''

Doctorat ès lettres Doctor of Letters (D.Litt., Litt.D., Latin: ' or '), also termed Doctor of Literature in some countries, is a terminal degree in the arts, humanities, and social sciences. In the United States, at universities such as Drew University, the degree ...

''. There was also the less prestigious "university doctorate", ''doctorat d'université'', which could be received for the submission of a single thesis. In the 1950s, the ''Doctorat ès lettres'' was renamed to ''Doctorat d'État''.Alan D. Schrift (2006), ''Twentieth-Century French Philosophy: Key Themes And Thinkers'', Blackwell Publishing, p. 208. In 1954 (for the

sciences Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...

) and 1958 (for letters and human sciences), the less demanding ''doctorat de troisième cycle'' degree was created on the model of the American Ph.D. with the purpose to lessen what had become an increasingly long period of time between the typical students' completion of their Diplôme d'études supérieures, roughly equivalent to a

Master of Arts A Master of Arts ( or ''Artium Magister''; abbreviated MA or AM) is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science. Those admitted to the degree have ...

, and their ''Doctorat d'État''. After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained: the "doctorate" (''Doctorat''). A special diploma was created called the " Habilitation to Supervise Research" (also translated as "accreditation to supervise research"; ''Habilitation à diriger des recherches''), a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work. (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older State doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain

tenure Tenure is a type of academic appointment that protects its holder from being fired or laid off except for cause, or under extraordinary circumstances such as financial exigency or program discontinuation. Academic tenure originated in the United ...

in other systems.) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work. Now habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (''Professeur des universités'') and to the title of Research Director (''Directeur de recherche'') in national public research agency such as

CNRS The French National Centre for Scientific Research (, , CNRS) is the French state research organisation and is the largest fundamental science agency in Europe. In 2016, it employed 31,637 staff, including 11,137 tenured researchers, 13,415 eng ...

INRIA The National Institute for Research in Digital Science and Technology (Inria) () is a French national research institution focusing on computer science and applied mathematics. It was created under the name French Institute for Research in Comp ...

, or INRAE. Admission Today, the doctorate (''doctorat'') is a research-only degree. It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by the minister of higher education and research. Only public institutions award the doctorate. It can be awarded in any field of study. The

is a prerequisite. The normal duration is three years. The writing of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctoral work. While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often substantially more. Some 15,000 new doctoral matriculations occur every year and ≈10,000 doctorates are awarded. Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship. The most well known is the ''Contrat Doctoral'' (4,000 granted every year with a gross salary of 1758 euros per month ). Since 2002, candidates follow in-service training, but there is no written examination for the doctorate. The candidate has to write a thesis that is read by two external reviewers. The head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend the thesis, after considering the external reviews. The jury members are designated by the head of the institution. The candidate's supervisor and the external reviewers are generally jury members. The maximum number of jury members is 8. The defense generally lasts 45 minutes in scientific fields, followed by 1 – hours of questions from the jury or other doctors present. The defense and questions are public. The jury then deliberates in private and then declares the candidate admitted or "postponed". The latter is rare. New regulations were set in 2016 and do not award distinctions. The title of doctor (''docteur'') can also be used by medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold a doctor's State diploma (''diplôme d'État de docteur'', distinct from the ''doctorat d'État'' mentioned above). The diploma is a first-degree. A guideline with good practices and legal analysis has been published in 2018 by the Association nationale des docteurs (ANDès) and the Confédération des Jeunes Chercheurs (CJC) with funding from the French Ministry of research.

Germany

Doctoral degrees in Germany are research doctorates and are awarded by a process called . Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the Ph.D.). The most important degrees are: * '' Dr. theol.'' (''theologiae''; theology); * '' Dr. phil.'' (''philosophiae''; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well); * '' Dr. rer. nat.'' (''rerum naturalium'';

natural Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the laws, elements and phenomena of the physical world, including life. Although humans are part ...

and

formal Formal, formality, informal or informality imply the complying with, or not complying with, some set of requirements ( forms, in Ancient Greek). They may refer to: Dress code and events * Formal wear, attire for formal events * Semi-formal atti ...

sciences, i.e. physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology); * '' Dr. iur.'' (''iuris''; law); * '' Dr. med.'' (''medicinae''; medicine); * ''Dr. med. dent.'' (''medicinae dentariae''; dentistry); * ''Dr. med. vet.'' (''medicinae veterinariae''; veterinary medicine); * '' Dr.-Ing.'' (engineering); * ''Dr. oec.'' (''oeconomiae''; economics); * ''Dr. rer. pol.'' (''rerum politicarum''; economics, business administration, political science). The concept of a US-style professional doctorate as an entry-level professional qualification does not exist. Professional doctorates obtained in other countries, not requiring a thesis or not being third cycle qualifications under the Bologna process, can only be used postnominally, e.g., "Max Mustermann, MD", and do not allow the use of the title Dr. In medicine, "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study therefore,

European Research Council The European Research Council (ERC) is a public body for funding of scientific and technological research conducted within the European Union (EU). Established by the European Commission in 2007, the ERC is composed of an independent Scientific ...

decided in 2010 that such Dr. med. degrees do not meet the international standards of a Ph.D. research degree. The duration of the doctorate depends on the field: a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years. Over fifty doctoral designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use. As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e.g., ''Dr. rer. nat. Max Mustermann'' or ''Dr. Max Mustermann'', dropping the designation entirely. However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by ''Dr. h.c.'' (from Latin honoris causa). Although the honorific does not become part of the name, holders can demand that the title appear in official documents. The title is not mandatory. The honorific is commonly used in formal letters. For holders of other titles, only the highest title is mentioned. In contrast to English, in which a person's name is preceded by at most one title (except in very ceremonious usage), the formal German mode of address permits several titles in addition to "Herr" or "Frau" (which, unlike "Mr" or "Ms", is not considered a title at all, but an ''Anrede'' or "address"), including repetitions in the case of multiple degrees, as in "Frau Prof. Dr. Dr. Schmidt", for a person who would be addressed as "Prof. Schmidt" in English. In the German university system it is common to write two doctoral theses, the inaugural thesis (), completing a course of study, and the

thesis (''

Habilitationsschrift Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy, Poland and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excelle ...

''), which opens the road to a professorship. Upon completion of the habilitation thesis, a ''Habilitation'' is awarded, which is indicated by appending ''habil.'' (''habilitata/habilitatus'') to the doctorate, e.g., ''Dr. rer. nat. habil. Max Mustermann''. It is considered as an additional academic qualification rather than an academic degree formally. It qualifies the owner to teach at German universities (''facultas docendi''). The holder of a ''Habilitation'' receives the authorization to teach a certain subject (''venia legendi''). This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining ''Privatdozent'' (PD) and employment as a full university

professor Professor (commonly abbreviated as Prof.) is an Academy, academic rank at university, universities and other tertiary education, post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, ''professor'' derives from Latin ...

. With the introduction of ''Juniorprofessuren''—around 2005—as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities (with tenure), ''Habilitation'' is no longer the only university career track.

India

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

, doctorates are offered by universities. Entry requirements include master's degree. Some universities consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law as qualifications for pursuing doctorate level degrees. Entrance examinations are held for almost all programs. In most universities, coursework duration and thesis is 3–7 years. The most common doctoral degree is Ph.D.

Italy

Until the introduction of the '' dottorato di ricerca'' in the mid-1980s, the ''

laurea In Italy, the ''laurea'' is the main post-secondary academic degree. The name originally referred literally to the laurel wreath, since ancient times a sign of honor and now worn by Italian students right after their official graduation ceremo ...

'' generally constituted the highest academic degree obtainable in Italy. The first institution in

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

to create a doctoral program was

Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa The Scuola Normale Superiore (commonly known in Italy as "la Normale") is a public university in Pisa and Florence, Tuscany, Italy, currently attended by about 600 undergraduate and postgraduate (PhD) students. Together with the University of Pi ...

in 1927 under the historic name ''"Diploma di Perfezionamento"''.STATUTO DELLA SCUOLA NORMALE SUPERIORE DI PISA (legge 18 giugno 1986, n. 308)
Further, the ''dottorato di ricerca'' was introduced by law and presidential decree in 1980, in a reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods. Italy uses a three-level degree system following the

. The first-level degree, called a ''laurea'' (''Bachelor's degree''), requires three years and a short thesis. The second-level degree, called a ''laurea magistrale'' (''Master's degree''), is obtained after two additional years, specializing in a branch of the field. This degree requires more advanced thesis work, usually involving academic research or an internship. The final degree is called a ''dottorato di ricerca'' (''Ph.D.'') and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis. Alternatively, after obtaining the ''laurea'' or the ''laurea magistrale'', one can complete a "Master's" (first-level Master's after the ''laurea''; second-level Master's after the ''laurea magistrale'') of one or two years, usually including an internship. An Italian "Master's" is not the same as a master's degree; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience. Regardless of the field of study, the title for Bachelors Graduate students is ''Dottore/Dottoressa'' (abbrev. ''Dott.''/''Dott.ssa'', or as ''Dr.''), not to be confused with the title for the Ph.D., which is instead ''Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca''. A ''laurea magistrale'' grants instead the title of ''Dottore/Dottoressa magistrale''. Graduates in the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called ''Dr. Prof.'' (or simply ''Professore'') or ''Maestro''. Many professional titles, such as ''ingegnere'' (engineer) are awarded only upon passing a post-graduation examination (''esame di stato''), and registration in the relevant professional association. The

Superior Graduate Schools in Italy A Superior Graduate School ( Italian: ''Scuola Superiore Universitaria'') is a completely independent institution from a legal point of view, which offers advanced training and research through university-type courses or is dedicated to teaching at ...

Ricerca Italiana, Scuole di Eccellenza
(

Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, a Romance ethnic group related to or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance languag ...

: ''Scuola Superiore Universitaria''), also called ''Schools of Excellence'' (

: ''Scuole di Eccellenza'') such as

and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies keep their historical ''"Diploma di Perfezionamento"'' title by law and MIUR Decree.

Japan

Dissertation-only

Until the 1990s, most natural science and engineering doctorates in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies. These degrees were awarded by the employees' former university, usually after years of research in industrial laboratories. The only requirement is submission of a dissertation, along with articles published in well-known journals. This program is called . It produced the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities. University-based doctoral programs called , are gradually replacing these degrees. By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%). Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) has provided tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa. The program is called JSPS RONPAKU.

Professional degree

The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor, known as ''Hōmu Hakushi'' (法務博士) The program generally lasts two or three years. This curriculum is professionally oriented, but unlike in the US the program does not provide education sufficient for a law license. All candidates for a bar license must pass the bar exam (''Shihou shiken''), attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical exam (''Nikai Shiken'' or ''Shihou Shushusei koushi'').

Netherlands and Flanders

The traditional academic system of the

Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...

provided basic academic diploma: ''propaedeuse'' and three academic degrees: ''kandidaat'' (the lowest degree), depending on gender ''doctorandus'' or ''doctoranda'' (drs.) (with equivalent degrees in engineering – ir. and law – mr.) and ''doctor'' (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of university, the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). In some fields, this diploma was abolished in the 1980s. In physics and mathematics, the student could directly obtain a ''kandidaats (candidate)'' diploma in two years. The candidate diploma was all but abolished by 1989. It used to be attained after completion of the majority of courses of the academic study (usually after completion of course requirements of the third year in the program), after which the student was allowed to begin work on their doctorandus thesis. The successful completion of this thesis conveyed the '' doctoranda/us'' title, implying that the student's initial studies were finished. In addition to these 'general' degrees, specific titles equivalent to the ''doctorandus'' degree were awarded for law: ''meester'' (master) (mr.), and for engineering: ''ingenieur'' (engineer)(ir.). Following the Bologna protocol the Dutch adopted the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees. The old candidate's degree was revived to become the bachelor's degree and the doctorandus' (mr and ir degree) were replaced by master's degrees. Students can only enroll in a doctorate system after completing a research university level master's degree; although dispensation can be granted on a case-by-case basis after scrutiny of the individual's portfolio. The most common way to conduct doctoral studies is to work as ''promovendus''/''assistent in opleiding'' (aio)/''onderzoeker in opleiding'' (oio) (

research assistant A research assistant (RA) is a researcher employed, often on a temporary contract, by a university, research institute, or privately held organization to provide assistance in academic or private research endeavors. Research assistants work under ...

with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research and write a dissertation consisting of published articles (over a period of four or more years). Research can also be conducted without official research assistant status, for example through a business-sponsored research laboratory. The doctor's title is the highest academic title in the Netherlands and Flanders. In research doctorates the degree is always Ph.D. or dr. with no distinction between disciplines, and can only be granted by research universities.

Netherlands

Every Ph.D. thesis has to be promoted by research university staff member holding

ius promovendi The ''ius promovendi'', in Dutch higher education, is the right to supervise doctoral students. Its name is Latin, literally meaning "the right to promote". Accordingly, a doctoral student is called '' promovendus'' (literally, one who is to be p ...

(the right to promote). In the Netherlands all full professors have ius promovendi, as well as other academic staff granted this right on individual basis by the board of their university (almost always senior associate professors). The promotor has the role of principal advisor and determines whether the thesis quality suffices and can be submitted to the examining committee. The examining committee is appointed by the academic board of the university based on recommendation of the promotor and consists of experts in the field. The examining committee reviews the thesis manuscript and has to approve or fail the thesis. Failures at this stage are rare because promotors generally not submit work they deem inadequate to the examining committee, supervisors and promotor lose prestige among their colleagues should they allow a substandard thesis to be submitted. After examining committee approval, the candidate publishes the thesis (generally more than 100 copies) and sends it to the examining committee, colleagues, friends and family with an invitation to the public defence. Additional copies are kept in the university library and the

Royal Library of the Netherlands The KB National Library of the Netherlands (legal Dutch name: Koninklijke Bibliotheek or KB ; ''Royal Library'') is the national library of the Netherlands, based in The Hague, founded in 1798. The KB collects everything that is published in ...

. The degree is awarded in a formal, public, defence session, in which the thesis is defended against critical questions of the "opposition" (the examining committee). Specific formalities differ between universities, for example whether a public presentation is given, either before or during the session, specific phrasing in the procedure, and dress code. In most protocols, candidates can be supported by paranymphs, a largely ceremonial role, but they are formally allowed to take over the defence on behalf of the candidate. Doctoral candidates The actual defence lasts exactly the assigned time slot (45 minutes to 1 hour exactly depending on the university) after which the defence is suspended by the bedel who stops the examination, frequently mid sentence. Failure during this session is possible, but extremely rare. After formal approval of the thesis and the defence by the examining committee in a closed discussion, the session is resumed and the promotor grants the degree and hands over the diploma to the candidate, and usually congratulates the candidate and gives a personal speech praising the work of the ''young doctor'' (laudatio), before the session is formally closed. Dutch doctors may use PhD behind their name instead of the uncapitalized dr. before their name. Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use one of the Dutch title dr. if their grade is approved as equivalent by the ''Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs'' though according to the opportunity principle, little effort is spent in identifying such fraud. Those who have multiple doctor (dr.) titles may use the title dr.mult. Those who have received honoris causa doctorates may use dr.h.c. before their own name. The Dutch universities of technology (

Eindhoven University of Technology The Eindhoven University of Technology (), Abbreviation, abbr. TU/e, is a public university, public technical university in the Netherlands, situated in Eindhoven. In 2020–21, around 14,000 students were enrolled in its Bachelor of Science, BS ...

Delft University of Technology The Delft University of Technology (TU Delft; ) is the oldest and largest Dutch public university, public Institute of technology, technical university, located in Delft, Netherlands. It specializes in engineering, technology, computing, design, a ...

University of Twente The University of Twente ( ; Abbreviation, abbr. ) is a Public university, public technical university located in Enschede, Netherlands. The university has been placed in the top 170 universities in the world by multiple central ranking tables. ...

, and

Wageningen University Wageningen University & Research (also known as WUR) is a public university, public research university in Wageningen, Netherlands, specializing in life sciences with a focus on agriculture, technical and engineering subjects. It is a globally i ...

) also award a 2-year (industry oriented) Professional Doctorate in Engineering ( PDEng), renamed EngD from September 2022 onwards, which does not grant the right to use the dr. title abbreviation. In 2023, a pilot started at universities of applied sciences with a professional doctoral programme, in which the focus is on applying knowledge to improve or solve professional processes or products.

Flanders

Belgium Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeas ...

Flemish Community The Flemish Community (, ) is one of the three institutional communities of Belgium, established by the Belgian constitution and having legal responsibilities only within the precise geographical boundaries of the Dutch-language area and of the ...

the doctorandus title was only used by those who actually started their doctoral work. Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a Ph.D. student. The ''licentiaat'' (licensee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the licentiaat degree to the master's degree (the Bologna reform abolished the two-year kandidaat degree and introduced a three-year academic bachelor's degree instead).

Poland

, an academic degree of 'doctor' is awarded in sciences and arts upon an examination and defence of a

doctoral dissertation A thesis (: theses), or dissertation (abbreviated diss.), is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings.International Standard ISO 7144: D ...

. As Poland is a signatory to the

, doctoral studies are a third cycle of studies following the

bachelor's A bachelor's degree (from Medieval Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years ( ...

() and

master's A master's degree (from Latin ) is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional prac ...

() degrees or their equivalents. Doctoral student is known as (masculine form) or (feminine form). Doctorate is awarded within specified brach and discipline of science or art by university or research institute accredited by the minister responsible for higher education. The title is abbreviated to in nominative case. Doctors may further go a

process.

Russia

Introduced in 1819 in the

Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...

, the academic title '' Doctor of the Sciences'' () marks the highest academic level achievable by a formal process. The title was abolished with the end of the Empire in 1917 and revived by the

in 1934 along with a new (lower) complementary degree of a '' Candidate octorof the Sciences (). This system is used since with minor adjustments. The ''Candidate of the Sciences'' title is usually seen as roughly equivalent to the research doctorates in Western countries while the ''Doctor of the Sciences'' title is relatively rare and retains its exclusivity. Most "Candidates" never reach the "Doctor of the Sciences" title. Similar title systems were adopted by many of the

Soviet bloc The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc (Combloc), the Socialist Bloc, the Workers Bloc, and the Soviet Bloc, was an unofficial coalition of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America that were a ...

countries.

Spain

Doctoral degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998), (in Spanish). They are granted by the university on behalf of the king. Its diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a national registry of theses called TESEO. According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), fewer than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programmes. All doctoral programs are research-oriented. A minimum of 4 years of study is required, divided into 2 stages: * A 2-year (or longer) period of studies concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors. Upon approval from the university, the candidate receives a (part qualified doctor, equivalent to M.Sc.). From 2008 it is possible to substitute the former diploma by a recognized master program. * A 2-year (or longer) research period includes extensions for up to 10 years. The student must present a thesis describing a discovery or original contribution. If approved by their thesis director, the study is presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public defense is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions. If approved, the candidate receives the doctorate. Four marks used to be granted: Unsatisfactory (), Pass (), Remarkable (), "Cum laude" (), and "Summa cum laude" (). Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" were allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award". Since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 99/2011) (in Spanish), three marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory (), Pass () and "Cum laude" () as maximum mark. In the public defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed. The mark is awarded after the public defense as the result of a private, anonymous vote. Votes are verified by the university. A unanimous vote of the reviewers nominates Doctors granted for an "Extraordinary Award" (). In the same Royal Decree the initial 3-year study period was replaced by a Research master's degree (one or two years; Professional master's degrees do not grant direct access to Ph.D. Programs) that concludes with a public dissertation called or . An approved project earns a master's degree that grants access to a Ph.D. program and initiates the period of research. A doctorate is required in order to teach at the university. Some universities offer an online Ph.D. model. Only Ph.D. holders, Grandees and

Duke Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of Royal family, royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and above sovereign princes. As royalty or nobi ...

s can sit and cover their heads in the presence of the King. From 1857, Complutense University was the only one in Spain authorised to confer the doctorate. This law remained in effect until 1954, when the

University of Salamanca The University of Salamanca () is a public university, public research university in Salamanca, Spain. Founded in 1218 by Alfonso IX of León, King Alfonso IX, it is the oldest university in the Hispanic world and the fourth oldest in the ...

joined in commemoration of its septcentenary. In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities. All doctorate holders are reciprocally recognised as equivalent in Germany and Spain (according to the "Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").

United Kingdom

History of the UK doctorate

The doctorate has long existed in the UK as, originally, the second degree in divinity, law, medicine and music. But it was not until the late 19th century that the research doctorate, now known as the higher doctorate, was introduced. The first higher doctorate was the

, introduced in 1882. This was soon followed by other universities, including the

University of Cambridge The University of Cambridge is a Public university, public collegiate university, collegiate research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, the University of Cambridge is the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, wo ...

establishing its ScD in the same year, the

University of London The University of London (UoL; abbreviated as Lond or more rarely Londin in Post-nominal letters, post-nominals) is a collegiate university, federal Public university, public research university located in London, England, United Kingdom. The ...

transforming its DSc from an advanced study course to a research degree in 1885, and the

establishing its

(DLitt) in 1900. The PhD was adopted in the UK following a joint decision in 1917 by British universities, although it took much longer for it to become established. Oxford became the first university to institute the new degree, although naming it the DPhil. The PhD was often distinguished from the earlier higher doctorates by distinctive academic dress. At Cambridge, for example, PhDs wear a master's gown with scarlet facings rather than the full scarlet gown of the higher doctors, while the

University of Wales The University of Wales () is a confederal university based in Cardiff, Wales. Founded by royal charter in 1893 as a federal university with three constituent colleges – Aberystwyth, Bangor and Cardiff – the university was the first universit ...

gave PhDs crimson gowns rather than scarlet. Professional doctorates were introduced in Britain in the 1980s and 1990s. The earliest professional doctorates were in the social sciences, including the

(DBA),

(EdD) and Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy).

British doctorates today

Today, except for those awarded ''honoris causa'' (honorary degrees), all doctorates granted by British universities are research doctorates, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of an extensive and substantial thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university. UK doctorates are categorised as: ;Doctorates :# ''Subject specialist research'' – normally PhD/DPhil; the most common form of doctorate :#* ''Integrated subject specialist doctorates'' – integrated PhDs including teaching at master's level :# ''Doctorates by publication'' – PhD by Published Works; only awarded infrequently :# ''Professional / practice-based / practitioner doctorates'' – e.g. EdD, ProfDoc/DProf, EngD, etc.; usually include taught elements and have an orientation that combines professional and academic aspects ;Higher doctorates: e.g. DD, LLD, DSc, DLitt; higher level than doctorates, usually awarded either for a substantial body of work over an extended period or as honorary degrees. The

Quality Assurance Agency The Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (usually referred to simply as the Quality Assurance Agency or QAA) is the United Kingdom higher education sector's independent expert quality body. It has a remit to maintain and enhance the qu ...

states in the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies (which covers doctorates but not higher doctorates) that: In the UK, the doctorate is a qualification awarded at FHEQ level 8/level 12 of the FQHEIS on the national qualifications frameworks. The higher doctorates are stated to be "A higher level of award", which is not covered by the qualifications frameworks.

Subject specialist doctorates

These are the most common doctorates in the UK and are normally awarded as PhDs. While the master/apprentice model was traditionally used for British PhDs, since 2003 courses have become more structured, with students taking courses in research skills and receiving training for professional and personal development. However, the assessment of the PhD remains based on the production of a thesis or equivalent and its defence at a '' viva voce'' oral examination, normally held in front of at least two examiners, one internal and one external. Access to PhDs normally requires an upper second class or first class

, or a

. Courses normally last three years, although it is common for students to be initially registered for MPhil degrees and then formally transferred onto the PhD after a year or two. Students who are not considered likely to complete a PhD may be offered the opportunity to complete an MPhil instead. Integrated doctorates, originally known as 'New Route PhDs', were introduced from 2000 onwards. These integrate teaching at master's level during the first one or two years of the degree, either alongside research or as a preliminary to starting research. These courses usually offer a master's-level exit degree after the taught courses are completed. While passing the taught elements is often required, examination of the final doctorate is still by thesis (or equivalent) alone. The duration of integrated doctorates is a minimum of four years, with three years spent on the research component. In 2013,

Research Councils UK Research Councils UK, sometimes known as RCUK, was a non-departmental public body that coordinated science policy in the United Kingdom from 2002 to 2018. It was an umbrella organisation that coordinated the seven separate research councils ...

issued a 'Statement of Expectations for Postgraduate Training', which lays out the expectations for training in PhDs funded by the research councils. In the latest version (2016), issued together with

Cancer Research UK Cancer Research UK (CRUK) is the world's largest independent cancer research organisation. It is registered as a charity in the United Kingdom and Isle of Man, and was formed on 4 February 2002 by the merger of The Cancer Research Campaign and t ...

, the

Wellcome Trust The Wellcome Trust is a charitable foundation focused on health research based in London, United Kingdom. It was established in 1936 with legacies from the pharmaceutical magnate Henry Wellcome (founder of Burroughs Wellcome, one of the predec ...

and the British Heart Foundation, these include the provision of careers advice, in-depth advanced training in the subject area, provision of transferable skills, training in experimental design and statistics, training in good research conduct, and training for compliance with legal, ethical and professional frameworks. The statement also encourages peer-group development through cohort training and/or Graduate schools.

Higher doctorates

Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate submits a collection of previously published, peer-refereed work, which is reviewed by a committee of internal and external academics who decide whether the candidate deserves the doctorate. The higher doctorate is similar in some respects to the

in some European countries. However, the purpose of the award is significantly different. While the habilitation formally determines whether an academic is suitably qualified to be a university professor, the higher doctorate does not qualify the holder for a position but rather recognises their contribution to research. Higher doctorates were defined by the UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE) in 2013 as: In terms of number of institutions offering the awards, the most common doctorates of this type in UKCGE surveys carried out in 2008 and 2013 were the

(DSc),

(DLitt),

Doctor of Law A Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) is a doctoral degree in legal studies. The abbreviation LL.D. stands for ''Legum Doctor'', with the double “L” in the abbreviation referring to the early practice in the University of Cambridge to teach both canon law ...

(LLD),

Doctor of Music The Doctor of Music degree (DMus, DM, MusD or occasionally MusDoc) is a doctorate awarded on the basis of a substantial portfolio of compositions, musical performances, and/or scholarly publications on music. In some institutions, the award is a ...

(DMus) and

(DD); in the 2008 survey the Doctor of Technology (DTech) tied with the DD. The DSc was offered by all 49 responding institutions in 2008 and 15 out of 16 in 2013 and the DLitt by only one less in each case, while the DD was offered in 10 responding institutions in 2008 and 3 in 2013. In terms of number of higher doctorates awarded (not including honorary doctorates) the DSc was most popular, but the number of awards was very low: the responding institutions had averaged an award of at most one earned higher doctorate per year over the period 2003–2013.

Honorary degrees

Most British universities award degrees ''honoris causa'' to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the candidate's achievements. However, some universities differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, using the degree of Doctor of the University (D.Univ.) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.

United States

U.S. research doctorates are awarded for advanced study followed by successfully completing and defending independent research presented in the form of a dissertation. Professional degrees may use the term "doctor" in their titles, such as

and

, but these degrees rarely contain an independent research component and are not research doctorates. Law school graduates, although awarded the J.D. degree, are not normally addressed as "doctor". In legal studies, the

is considered the equivalent to a Ph.D. Many American universities offer the PhD followed by a professional doctorate or joint PhD with a professional degree. Often, PhD work is sequential to the professional degree, e.g., PhD in law after a JD or equivalent in

physical therapy Physical therapy (PT), also known as physiotherapy, is a healthcare profession, as well as the care provided by physical therapists who promote, maintain, or restore health through patient education, physical intervention, disease preventio ...

after DPT, in

pharmacy Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, reviewing and monitoring medications, aiming to ensure the safe, effective, and affordable use of medication, medicines. It is a miscellaneous science as it ...

after Pharm.D. Such professional degrees are referred to as an entry-level doctorate program and Ph.D. as a post-professional doctorate.

Research degrees

The most common research doctorate in the United States is the

(Ph.D.). This degree was first awarded in the U.S. at the 1861

commencement.. Retrieved on 2010-10-26. The

University of Pennsylvania The University of Pennsylvania (Penn or UPenn) is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. One of nine colonial colleges, it was chartered in 1755 through the efforts of f ...

followed in 1871, with

(1872),

Harvard Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1636 and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher lear ...

(1873),

Michigan Michigan ( ) is a peninsular U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, Upper Midwestern United States. It shares water and land boundaries with Minnesota to the northwest, Wisconsin to the west, ...

(1876) and Princeton (1879) following suit. Controversy and opposition followed the introduction of the Ph.D. into the U.S. educational system, lasting into the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign (Germany) educational system, which corrupted a system based on England's

Oxbridge Oxbridge is a portmanteau of the University of Oxford, Universities of Oxford and University of Cambridge, Cambridge, the two oldest, wealthiest, and most prestigious universities in the United Kingdom. The term is used to refer to them collect ...

model. Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful completion of coursework, passing a

comprehensive examination In higher education, a comprehensive examination (or comprehensive exam or exams), often abbreviated as "comps", is a specific type of Test (assessment), examination that must be completed by graduate students in some disciplines and courses of st ...

, and defending a dissertation. The median number of years for completion of U.S. doctoral degrees is seven. Doctoral applicants were previously required to have a

, but many programs accept students immediately following undergraduate studies. Many programs gauge the potential of applicants to their program and grant a master's degree upon completion of the necessary course work. When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the master's degree despite not holding one, though this tradition is under heavy criticism. Successfully finishing Ph.D. qualifying exams confers Ph.D. candidate status, allowing dissertation work to begin. The International Affairs Office of the U.S. Department of Education has listed 18 frequently awarded research doctorate titles identified by the

National Science Foundation The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) is an Independent agencies of the United States government#Examples of independent agencies, independent agency of the Federal government of the United States, United States federal government that su ...

(NSF) as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Ph.D.

Professional degrees

Many fields offer professional doctorates (or professional master's degrees) such as

engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to Problem solving#Engineering, solve problems within technology, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve Systems engineering, s ...

medicine Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...

, etc., that require such degrees for professional practice or

. Some of these degrees are also termed "

first professional degree A professional degree, formerly known in the US as a first professional degree, is a degree that prepares someone to work in a particular profession, practice, or industry sector often meeting the academic requirements for licensure or accreditatio ...

s", since they are the first field-specific master's or doctoral degrees. A Doctor of Engineering (DEng) is a professional degree. In contrast to a PhD in Engineering where students usually conduct original theory-based research, DEng degrees are built around applied coursework and a practice-led project and thus designed for working engineers in the industry. DEng students defend their thesis at the end of their study before a thesis committee in order to be conferred a degree. A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree. It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US. Pharmacy programs vary in length between four years for matriculants with a B.S./B.A. to six years for others. In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the

Doctor of Audiology The Doctor of Audiology (AuD, sometimes written Au.D.) is a professional degree for an audiologist. The AuD program is designed to produce audiologists who are skilled in providing diagnostic, rehabilitative, and other services associated with h ...

in 2007. Advanced Practice Registered Nurses were expected to completely transition to the

Doctor of Nursing Practice The Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) is a professional degree in nursing in the United States of America. In the United States, the DNP is one of three doctoral degrees in nursing, the other two being the research degree PhD and the Doctor o ...

by 2015, and physical therapists to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020. Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor. In many cases master's-level programs were relabeled as doctoral programs.

Revocation

A doctoral degree can be revoked or rescinded by the university that awarded it. Possible reasons include plagiarism, criminal or unethical activities of the holder, or malfunction or manipulation of academic evaluation processes.

Notes

References

{{Authority control Academic degrees of the United States

History

Middle Ages

17th and 18th centuries

Modern times

Types

Research doctorate

Licentiate

Higher doctorate and post-doctoral degrees

Professional doctorate

Honorary doctorate

National variations

Argentina

Australia

Brazil

Denmark

Egypt

Finland

France

Germany

India

Italy

Japan

Dissertation-only

Professional degree

Netherlands and Flanders

Netherlands

Flanders

Poland

Russia

Spain

United Kingdom

History of the UK doctorate

British doctorates today

Subject specialist doctorates

Higher doctorates

Honorary degrees

United States

Research degrees

Professional degrees

Revocation

See also

Notes

References