Impersonal verb

In linguistics, an impersonal verb is one that has no determinate subject. For example, in the sentence "''It rains''", ''rain'' is an impersonal verb and the pronoun ''it'' does not refer to anything. In many languages the verb takes a third person singular inflection and often appears with an expletive subject. In the active voice, impersonal verbs can be used to express operation of nature, mental distress, and acts with no reference to the doer. Impersonal verbs are also called weather verbs because they frequently appear in the context of weather description. Also, indefinite pronouns may be called "impersonal", as they refer to an unknown person, like ''one'' or ''someone'', and there is overlap between the use of the two.

Valency

Impersonal verbs appear only in non-finite forms or with third-person inflection. In the third person, the subject is either implied or a dummy referring to people in general. The term "impersonal" simply means that the verb does not change according to grammatical person. In terms of valency, impersonal verbs are often avalent, as they often lack semantic arguments. In the sentence ''It rains'', the pronoun ''it'' is a dummy subject; it is merely a syntactic placeholder—it has no concrete referent. In many other languages, there would be no subject at all. In Spanish, for example, ''It is raining'' could be expressed as simply ''llueve''.

Use in meteorological expressions

Temperature expressions ("it is hot"), weather expressions ("it is snowing"), and daylight expressions ("it is dark") tend to lack independent participants with distinct semantic roles. While snow participates in snowing, very few other types of participants can participate, and the participant is indistinguishable from the event itself; this is similar to the phenomenon of cognate objects. In addition, the participating snow is non-specific, and lacks a clear semantic role. Therefore, assigning the participating snow the role of 'referent' in the default English expression "it is snowing" would seem inappropriate. Instead, linguistics classify the "is snowing" in "it is snowing" as an impersonal verb.

Meteorological expressions are often constructed with impersonal verbs in English. However, meteorological expressions are obviously not restricted solely to impersonal verbs, even in English; furthermore, different languages use different strategies for their default meteorological expressions and common idioms. In Palestinian Arabic, "Id-dunya ti-shti" translates to "It (the world) is raining" and uses a non-impersonal verb. "Vreme je sunčano", which means "the weather is sunny", is a common Serbian construction that uses a (non-impersonal) adverb rather than a verb.

Forms

Invisible arguments

When an agent is unspecified, impersonal verbs are also known as zero person construction, or impersonal construction. An implicit argument (an argument that is put forth without stating it directly) is present on a semantic level for both Estonian and Finnish. The Finnic impersonal construction enables an event or state to be described without specifying the identity of the agent (actor). Despite this, the interpretation of the impersonal includes a referent of some sort (dummy). The zero person is not entirely the same as an impersonal.

Finnish:

Estonian:

There is a lack of an overt nominative subject in these constructions.

By-phrase

Some languages require their counterpart to the English by-phrase be present (like Palauan and Indonesian, Austronesian languages). Other languages disallow the presence of a by-phrase. For example, Polish does not allow the use of a by-phrase in its passive.

The content in the parenthesis causes the Polish sentence to be ungrammatical as who did the knocking cannot be overtly stated. As such, it might seem like it would be more grammatical to use impersonal verbs in such cases.

Impersonal verbs by language

In some languages such as English, French, German, Dutch and Swedish, an impersonal verb always takes an impersonal pronoun (''it'' in English, ''il'' in French, ''es'' in German, ''het'' in Dutch, ''det'' in Swedish) as its syntactical subject:

:''It snowed yesterday''. (English)
:''Il a neigé hier''. (French)
:''Es schneite gestern''. (German)
:''Het sneeuwde gisteren''. (Dutch)
:''Det snöade igår''. (Swedish)

Occasionally an impersonal verb will allow an object to appear in apposition to the impersonal subject pronoun:

:''It is raining diamonds.''

Or as an instrumental adjunct:

:''It was pouring with rain.'' (British English)

In some other languages (necessarily null subject languages and typically pro-drop languages), such as Portuguese, Spanish, Occitan, Catalan, Italian, Romanian, in Hungarian and all the Slavic languages, an impersonal verb takes no subject at all, but it is conjugated in the third-person singular, which is much as though it had a third-person, singular subject.

:''Nevó ayer.'' (Spanish)
:''Nevou ontem.'' (Portuguese)
:''Ha nevicato ieri.'' (Italian)
:''A nins ieri.'' (Romanian)
:''Sniježilo je jučer.'' (Croatian)
:''Havazott tegnap.'' (Hungarian)
:''Вчера вееше снег. / Včera veeše sneg.'' (Macedonian)

Other languages, those which require a subject, may permit an adjunct to assume that role.

:''Unfortunately the next day poured with rain.''

Indo-European

English

The following sentences illustrate impersonal verbs:

:(1) It rains.
:(2) It is cold.
:(3) It is growing dark.
:(4) It seems that there is no end to this.
:(5) It is unclear why he cut the rope.

The expletive pronoun ''it'' in these sentences does not denote a clear entity, yet the meaning is clear. In other words, the pronoun ''it'' has no clear antecedent. English is so strict about requiring a subject that it supplies them for verbs that do not really require them. In sentences (4) and (5), ''it'' is in the subject position, while the real subject has been moved to the end of the sentence.

A simple test can be done to see if the sentence contains an impersonal verb. One checks to see if a given subject pronoun takes an antecedent in the previous clause or sentence, e.g.

::Bukit Timah is 163.63 metres tall. It is the highest point in Singapore.

::Bukit Timah is 163.63 metres tall. It rains frequently there.

The two examples may seem similar, but only the pronoun ''it'' in the first example links with the previous subject. The pronoun ''it'' in the second example, on the other hand, has no referent. The hill (Bukit Timah) does not rain, ''it'' rains. This demonstrates that ''rain'' is an impersonal verb.

Spanish

There is no equivalent of the dummy subject ''it'' in Spanish. In Spanish, there are a few true impersonal avalent verbs. Most of them are "atmospheric verbs":

:''llueve''
:It's raining
:''ha helado''
:It froze

Most ''impersonal'' constructions in Spanish involve using a special verb in third-person defective verb with a direct object as its only argument or use of '' impersonal se'' (not to be confused with other uses of ''se'').

There are two main impersonal verbs in Spanish: ''haber'' (to have, there to be) and ''hacer'' (to do). ''Haber'' is an irregular verb. When used as an impersonal verb in the present tense, it has a special conjugation for the third person singular (''hay''). Clauses with the verb ''haber'' do not have an explicit subject; its only argument is a direct object noun phrase that does not agree with the verb. ''Haber'' has its 'natural meaning' of ''tener'' 'to have'.
:''Hay un libro (aquí).''
:There is a book (here)
:''Hay muchos libros.''
:There are many books
:''Hubo muchos libros (que no se vendieron).''
:There were many books (that were not sold).

Less frequently, and only in some expressions with a limited number of nouns in singular, the verb "hacer" in the 3rd singular is used as impersonal (''Hacer'' is a very common verb meaning 'to do').
:''hace frío''
:It's cold
:''hizo frío ayer''
: yesterday it was cold
:''hace viento''
:It's windy

Spanish will add the pronoun ''se'' in front of verbs to form general sentences. Impersonal voice using ''se'' will use a singular verb since ''se'' can be replaced by ''uno''.

:''¿Cómo se escribe "Apple"?''
:How do you spell "Apple"?

The passive voice in Spanish has similar characteristics following that of the impersonal ''se''. It is normally formed by using ''se'' + the third person singular or plural conjugation of a verb, similar to the impersonal ''se''. This use of ''se'' is easily confused with the medial ''se''.
:Active voice:
:''Mis amigos comieron torta'' (European and American Spanish)
:My friends ate cake (i.e. some of the cake)
:''Mis amigos comieron la torta'' (American Spanish, less frequent in European Spanish)
:My friends ate the cake

:Medial meaning:
:''Mis amigos se comieron la torta''
:My friends ate all the cake

:Passive voice:
:Esta torta ''se come tradicionalmente en Navidad.''
:This cake is normally eaten during Christmas
:''Se vende esta casa.''
:This house is for sale

French

The verbs are impersonal in French because they do not take a real personal subject as they do not represent any action, occurrence or state-of-being that can be attributed to a person, place or a thing. In French, as in English, these impersonal verbs take on the impersonal pronoun - ''il'' in French.

:''Il faut que tu fasses tes devoirs.''
:It is necessary that you do your homework.

The ''il'' is a dummy subject and does not refer to anything in particular in this phrase. The most common impersonal form is ''il y a'', meaning ''there is'', ''there are''. Note its other tenses ''(il y avait, il y a eu, il y aura, etc.)''.

French makes a distinction between a dummy subject and an actual subject in clauses with infinitives by the use of a different preposition. The preposition ''de'' is used with dummy subjects and the preposition ''à'' is used with real subjects. Compare:

:It's important to learn. (= Learning is important.) - dummy subject
:''Il est important d'apprendre.

:It's important to learn. (= This is important to learn.) - real subject
:''Il est important à apprendre.''

German

Impersonal verbs are relatively common in German, often in constructions about a state or process. Common examples include ''es brennt'' ("there is a fire", literally "it burns"), ''es zieht'' ("there is a draft", literally "it draws") and ''es klopft'' ("there is a knock at the door", literally "it knocks"), as well as the whimsical ''es weihnachtet sehr'' ("it is very Christmassy", literally "it is Christmas-ing hard").

Many statements asserting existence also use an impersonal form. Often the equivalent sentences in English start with ''there''.

:''Es gibt''
:There is
:''Es kamen''
:There came

Celtic languages

The Celtic languages also possess impersonal verbal forms though their use is usually translated into English by forms such as 'one sees' (Welsh: ''gwelir''), 'one did' (Welsh: ''gwnaethpwyd''), 'one is' (Irish: ''táthar'') etc., in which he 'one' is taken to be an empty subject. For weather, personal verbs are used in Celtic languages, e.g. Welsh ''Mae hi'n bwrw eira'' 'it is snowing'.

Verbs meaning existence may also be impersonal.

:Há livros.'' / Há um livro.'' (Portuguese)
:Hay libros.'' / Hay un libro.'' (Spanish)
:There are (some) books. / There is a book.

However, sometimes there are intransitive verbs with more or less the same meaning:

:Existem livros.'' / Existe um livro.'' (Portuguese)
:Existen libros.'' / Existe un libro.'' (Spanish)
:(Some) books exist. / A book exists.

Latin

Latin has several impersonal verbs, most often seen in the third person singular. The real subject of the sentence will not be in the nominative case but is most often in the dative or accusative case. These verbs include:

* Decet – it becomes/suits; it is right/proper
* Libet – it pleases
* Licet – it is permitted/allowed
* Oportet – it is proper/fitting
* Placet – it is agreed/resolved

Tai-Kadai

Thai

Impersonal verbs in Thai do not allow for an overt grammatical subject. The impersonal verbs occur only with transitive verbs.

There is no allowance for the presence of a non-referential subject ''man'' 'it' in the case frame. In general, it is not allowed in formal speech, such as news reports. However, the presence of non-referential subject ''man'' can occur in the colloquial form.

Subdivision into non-inception and inception subclasses can occur depending on whether the verb may occur with the path adverb ''khin'' 'up'.

Constructed languages

In the auxiliary language Interlingua, verbs are not conjugated by person. Impersonal verbs take the pronoun ''il'':

:''Il ha nivate heri.'' (Interlingua)

In the planned auxiliary language Esperanto, where verbs also are not conjugated for person, impersonal verbs are simply stated with no subject given or implied, even though Esperanto is otherwise ''not'' a null subject language:

:''Neĝis hieraŭ.'' (Esperanto)

In the planned logical language Lojban, impersonal verbs simply have no first argument filled and might not have any arguments filled at all:

:''carvi ca lo prulamdei'' (Lojban)

where ''carvi'' is a verb meaning ''x₁ rains/showers/ recipitatesto x₂ from x₃'' where ''x₁'', ''x₂'', ''x₃'' are numbered core arguments.

Comparison to other linguistic classifications

Weather verb

Verbs which are used to describe the weather, are often noted to be impersonal verbs in some languages. Some linguists consider the impersonal subject of a weather verb to be a "dummy pronoun", while others have been critical of this interpretation on the basis of their role as objects in the arguments of verb clauses. In Mandarin Chinese, there are weather verbs which may take no subject or object.

Impersonal pronoun

An impersonal pronoun, or dummy pronoun, lacks a reference; in English, the usual example is "it" when used with an impersonal verb. Some sources classify certain uses of "one" (ex. "what should one say?") or " you" (ex. "you only live once") as "human impersonal pronouns". An impersonal pronoun, when used, serves as an empty placeholder, or "dummy subject", for the sentence.

Examples:
: You would think the inner dome of heaven had fallen.
: The young comedian was awful; one felt embarrassed for him.
: If one fails, then one must try harder next time.

When the pronoun ''one'' is used in the numerical sense (rather than as a dummy pronoun), a different pronoun can be used subsequently to referring to the same entity.
: We watched as one f the ospreysdried its feathers in the sun.
: One riverpulled her car over to the side.

Generally, it is not ideal to mix the impersonal pronoun one with another pronoun in the same sentence.

: If ''one'' fails, then he/you must simply try harder.

Null objects

While the concept of impersonal verbs is closely related to phenomenon of null subjects, null objects have to do with the lack of the obligatory projection of an object position.

In French
:''C'est pas lui qui l'a écrit, son livre, le pape, c'est quelqu'un qui lui écrit'' __.
:The Pope didn't write his book himself, someone writes __ for him.

In English
:Why then do the psychic gifts often seem to tease __, confuse __ and obstruct __?

Null objects can be understood as implicit anaphoric direct objects, that is, those whose referents can be understood from the prior or ongoing discourse context as well as sufficiently salient in that context not only to be encoded pronominally, but even to be entirely omitted. However, it is not imperative that the referent of the direct object has been referred to explicitly previously in the discourse; it could instead be accessible extra-linguistically due to its salience to the interlocutors.

Defective verb

An impersonal verb is different from a defective verb in that, with an impersonal verb, only one possible syntactical subject is meaningful (either expressed or not), whereas with a defective verb, certain choices of subject might not be grammatically possible, because the verb does not have a complete conjugation.

In universal grammar theory

Impersonal verbs can be considered null subject data. They involve a general concern in generative grammar: determining the nature and distribution of phonetically null but syntactically present entities ( empty categories). Since, by definition, these entities are absent from the speech signal, it is of interest that language learners still can come to have information about them. As this phenomenon could not have resulted from sufficient prior experience, it suggests the role of universal grammar.

See also

* Gender-specific and gender-neutral third-person pronouns
* Generic you
* Impersonal passive voice
* Impersonal pronoun "one"
* Null-subject language
* Transitive verb
* Transitivity (grammar)

References

{{lexical categories, state=collapsed

Transitivity and valency