A hyperelastic or Green elastic material
[R.W. Ogden, 1984, ''Non-Linear Elastic Deformations'', , Dover.] is a type of
constitutive model
In physics and engineering, a constitutive equation or constitutive relation is a relation between two physical quantities (especially kinetic quantities as related to kinematic quantities) that is specific to a material or substance, and approx ...
for ideally
elastic
Elastic is a word often used to describe or identify certain types of elastomer, elastic used in garments or stretchable fabrics.
Elastic may also refer to:
Alternative name
* Rubber band, ring-shaped band of rubber used to hold objects togethe ...
material for which the stress–strain relationship derives from a
strain energy density function
A strain energy density function or stored energy density function is a scalar-valued function that relates the strain energy density of a material to the deformation gradient.
:
W = \hat(\boldsymbol) = \hat(\boldsymbol^T\cdot\boldsymbol) = ...
. The hyperelastic material is a special case of a
Cauchy elastic material.
For many materials,
linear elastic models do not accurately describe the observed material behaviour. The most common example of this kind of material is rubber, whose
stress
Stress may refer to:
Science and medicine
* Stress (biology), an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition
* Stress (linguistics), relative emphasis or prominence given to a syllable in a word, or to a word in a phrase ...
-
strain relationship can be defined as non-linearly elastic,
isotropic
Isotropy is uniformity in all orientations; it is derived . Precise definitions depend on the subject area. Exceptions, or inequalities, are frequently indicated by the prefix ' or ', hence '' anisotropy''. ''Anisotropy'' is also used to describ ...
and
incompressible
In fluid mechanics or more generally continuum mechanics, incompressible flow ( isochoric flow) refers to a flow in which the material density is constant within a fluid parcel—an infinitesimal volume that moves with the flow velocity. An eq ...
. Hyperelasticity provides a means of modeling the stress–strain behavior of such materials. The behavior of unfilled,
vulcanized elastomers
An elastomer is a polymer with viscoelasticity (i.e. both viscosity and elasticity) and with weak intermolecular forces, generally low Young's modulus and high failure strain compared with other materials. The term, a portmanteau of ''elastic p ...
often conforms closely to the hyperelastic ideal. Filled elastomers and
biological tissues are also often modeled via the hyperelastic idealization.
Ronald Rivlin
Ronald Samuel Rivlin (6 May 1915 in London – 4 October 2005) was a British-American physicist, mathematician, rheologist and a noted expert on rubber.''New York Times'' November 25, 2005 "Ronald Rivlin, 90, Expert on Properties of Rubber, Dies ...
and
Melvin Mooney
Melvin Mooney (1893–1968) was an American physicist and rheologist.
Life
Mooney was born in Kansas City, Missouri.J. H. Dillon (1948) J. Colloid Sci. 4 (3) 187-8 "Introduction of Melvin Mooney as E. C. Bingham Medallist" He achieved an A.B. ...
developed the first hyperelastic models, the
Neo-Hookean and
Mooney–Rivlin solids. Many other hyperelastic models have since been developed. Other widely used hyperelastic material models include the
Ogden model and the
Arruda–Boyce model
In continuum mechanics, an Arruda–Boyce model Arruda, E. M. and Boyce, M. C., 1993, A three-dimensional model for the large stretch behavior of rubber elastic materials,, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 41(2), pp. 389–412. is a hyperelastic constitut ...
.
Hyperelastic material models
Saint Venant–Kirchhoff model
The simplest hyperelastic material model is the Saint Venant–Kirchhoff model which is just an extension of the geometrically linear elastic material model to the geometrically nonlinear regime. This model has the general form and the isotropic form respectively
where
is tensor contraction,
is the second Piola–Kirchhoff stress,
is a fourth order
stiffness tensor and
is the Lagrangian Green strain given by
and
are the
Lamé constants, and
is the second order unit tensor.
The strain-energy density function for the Saint Venant–Kirchhoff model is
and the second Piola–Kirchhoff stress can be derived from the relation
Classification of hyperelastic material models
Hyperelastic material models can be classified as:
#
phenomenological descriptions of observed behavior
#*
Fung
#*
Mooney–Rivlin
#*
Ogden
#*
Polynomial
In mathematics, a polynomial is an expression consisting of indeterminates (also called variables) and coefficients, that involves only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and positive-integer powers of variables. An exampl ...
#* Saint Venant–Kirchhoff
#*
Yeoh
Yeoh is one spelling of the Hokkien pronunciation (; IPA: ) of the Chinese surname spelled in Mandarin Chinese Pinyin as Yáng (; see that article for the history of the surname). Another common spelling is Yeo. Both the spellings Yeoh and Yeo a ...
#*
Marlow
#
mechanistic models deriving from arguments about underlying structure of the material
#*
Arruda–Boyce model
In continuum mechanics, an Arruda–Boyce model Arruda, E. M. and Boyce, M. C., 1993, A three-dimensional model for the large stretch behavior of rubber elastic materials,, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 41(2), pp. 389–412. is a hyperelastic constitut ...
#*
Neo–Hookean model[
#* Buche–Silberstein model]
# hybrids of phenomenological and mechanistic models
#* Gent
#* Van der Waals
Generally, a hyperelastic model should satisfy the Drucker stability criterion.
Some hyperelastic models satisfy the Valanis-Landel hypothesis which states that the strain energy function can be separated into the sum of separate functions of the principal stretches :
Stress–strain relations
Compressible hyperelastic materials
First Piola–Kirchhoff stress
If is the strain energy density function, the 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor can be calculated for a hyperelastic material as
where is the deformation gradient. In terms of the Lagrangian Green strain ()
In terms of the right Cauchy–Green deformation tensor ()
Second Piola–Kirchhoff stress
If is the second Piola–Kirchhoff stress tensor then
In terms of the Lagrangian Green strain
In terms of the right Cauchy–Green deformation tensor
The above relation is also known as the Doyle-Ericksen formula in the material configuration.
Cauchy stress
Similarly, the Cauchy stress is given by
In terms of the Lagrangian Green strain
In terms of the right Cauchy–Green deformation tensor
The above expressions are valid even for anisotropic media (in which case, the potential function is understood to depend ''implicitly'' on reference directional quantities such as initial fiber orientations). In the special case of isotropy, the Cauchy stress can be expressed in terms of the ''left'' Cauchy-Green deformation tensor as follows:[Y. Basar, 2000, Nonlinear continuum mechanics of solids, Springer, p. 157.]
Incompressible hyperelastic materials
For an incompressible
In fluid mechanics or more generally continuum mechanics, incompressible flow ( isochoric flow) refers to a flow in which the material density is constant within a fluid parcel—an infinitesimal volume that moves with the flow velocity. An eq ...
material . The incompressibility constraint is therefore . To ensure incompressibility of a hyperelastic material, the strain-energy function can be written in form:
where the hydrostatic pressure functions as a Lagrangian multiplier
In mathematical optimization, the method of Lagrange multipliers is a strategy for finding the local maxima and minima of a function subject to equality constraints (i.e., subject to the condition that one or more equations have to be satisfied ex ...
to enforce the incompressibility constraint. The 1st Piola–Kirchhoff stress now becomes
This stress tensor can subsequently be converted
Conversion or convert may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
* "Conversion" (''Doctor Who'' audio), an episode of the audio drama ''Cyberman''
* "Conversion" (''Stargate Atlantis''), an episode of the television series
* "The Conversion" ...
into any of the other conventional stress tensors, such as the Cauchy stress tensor
In continuum mechanics, the Cauchy stress tensor \boldsymbol\sigma, true stress tensor, or simply called the stress tensor is a second order tensor named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy. The tensor consists of nine components \sigma_ that completely ...
which is given by
Expressions for the Cauchy stress
Compressible isotropic hyperelastic materials
For isotropic
Isotropy is uniformity in all orientations; it is derived . Precise definitions depend on the subject area. Exceptions, or inequalities, are frequently indicated by the prefix ' or ', hence '' anisotropy''. ''Anisotropy'' is also used to describ ...
hyperelastic materials, the Cauchy stress can be expressed in terms of the invariants of the left Cauchy–Green deformation tensor (or right Cauchy–Green deformation tensor). If the strain energy density function
A strain energy density function or stored energy density function is a scalar-valued function that relates the strain energy density of a material to the deformation gradient.
:
W = \hat(\boldsymbol) = \hat(\boldsymbol^T\cdot\boldsymbol) = ...
is then
(See the page on the left Cauchy–Green deformation tensor for the definitions of these symbols).
:=J^\boldsymbol, resulting in the isochoric deformation gradient having a determinant of 1, in other words it is volume stretch free. Using this one can subsequently define the isochoric left Cauchy–Green deformation tensor .
The invariants of are
The set of invariants which are used to define the distortional behavior are the first two invariants of the isochoric left Cauchy–Green deformation tensor tensor, (which are identical to the ones for the right Cauchy Green stretch tensor), and add into the fray to describe the volumetric behaviour.
To express the Cauchy stress in terms of the invariants recall that
The chain rule of differentiation gives us
Recall that the Cauchy stress is given by
In terms of the invariants we have
Plugging in the expressions for the derivatives of in terms of , we have
or,
In terms of the deviatoric part of , we can write
For an incompressible
In fluid mechanics or more generally continuum mechanics, incompressible flow ( isochoric flow) refers to a flow in which the material density is constant within a fluid parcel—an infinitesimal volume that moves with the flow velocity. An eq ...
material and hence .Then
the Cauchy stress is given by
where is an undetermined pressure-like Lagrange multiplier term. In addition, if , we have and hence
the Cauchy stress can be expressed as
= \frac~\boldsymbol^T\cdot(\mathbf_i\otimes\mathbf_i)\cdot\boldsymbol~;~~
i = 1,2,3 ~.
The chain rule gives
The Cauchy stress is given by
Plugging in the expression for the derivative of leads to
Using the spectral decomposition of we have
Also note that
Therefore, the expression for the Cauchy stress can be written as
For an incompressible
In fluid mechanics or more generally continuum mechanics, incompressible flow ( isochoric flow) refers to a flow in which the material density is constant within a fluid parcel—an infinitesimal volume that moves with the flow velocity. An eq ...
material and hence . Following Ogden[ p. 485, we may write
Some care is required at this stage because, when an eigenvalue is repeated, it is in general only Gateaux differentiable, but not Fréchet differentiable.][Friswell MI. ''The derivatives of repeated eigenvalues and their associated eigenvectors.'' Journal of Vibration and Acoustics (ASME) 1996; 118:390–397.] A rigorous tensor derivative
In mathematics, the covariant derivative is a way of specifying a derivative along tangent vectors of a manifold. Alternatively, the covariant derivative is a way of introducing and working with a connection on a manifold by means of a different ...
can only be found by solving another eigenvalue problem.
If we express the stress in terms of differences between components,
If in addition to incompressibility we have then a possible solution to the problem
requires and we can write the stress differences as
Incompressible isotropic hyperelastic materials
For incompressible isotropic
Isotropy is uniformity in all orientations; it is derived . Precise definitions depend on the subject area. Exceptions, or inequalities, are frequently indicated by the prefix ' or ', hence '' anisotropy''. ''Anisotropy'' is also used to describ ...
hyperelastic materials, the strain energy density function
A strain energy density function or stored energy density function is a scalar-valued function that relates the strain energy density of a material to the deformation gradient.
:
W = \hat(\boldsymbol) = \hat(\boldsymbol^T\cdot\boldsymbol) = ...
is . The Cauchy stress is then given by
where is an undetermined pressure. In terms of stress differences
If in addition , then
If , then
Consistency with linear elasticity
Consistency with linear elasticity is often used to determine some of the parameters of hyperelastic material models. These consistency conditions can be found by comparing Hooke's law
In physics, Hooke's law is an empirical law which states that the force () needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance () scales linearly with respect to that distance—that is, where is a constant factor characteristic of t ...
with linearized hyperelasticity at small strains.
Consistency conditions for isotropic hyperelastic models
For isotropic hyperelastic materials to be consistent with isotropic linear elasticity
Linear elasticity is a mathematical model of how solid objects deform and become internally stressed due to prescribed loading conditions. It is a simplification of the more general nonlinear theory of elasticity and a branch of continuum mec ...
, the stress–strain relation should have the following form in the infinitesimal strain limit:
where are the Lamé constants. The strain energy density function that corresponds to the above relation is[
For an incompressible material and we have
For any strain energy density function to reduce to the above forms for small strains the following conditions have to be met][
If the material is incompressible, then the above conditions may be expressed in the following form.
These conditions can be used to find relations between the parameters of a given hyperelastic model and shear and bulk moduli.
]
Consistency conditions for incompressible based rubber materials
Many elastomers are modeled adequately by a strain energy density function that depends only on . For such materials we have .
The consistency conditions for incompressible materials for may then be expressed as
The second consistency condition above can be derived by noting that
These relations can then be substituted into the consistency condition for isotropic incompressible hyperelastic materials.
References
See also
* Cauchy elastic material
*Continuum mechanics
Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. The French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the first to formulate such mo ...
*Deformation (mechanics)
In physics, deformation is the continuum mechanics transformation of a body from a ''reference'' configuration to a ''current'' configuration. A configuration is a set containing the positions of all particles of the body.
A deformation can ...
*Finite strain theory
In continuum mechanics, the finite strain theory—also called large strain theory, or large deformation theory—deals with deformations in which strains and/or rotations are large enough to invalidate assumptions inherent in infinitesimal strai ...
*Ogden–Roxburgh model
The Ogden–Roxburgh model is an approach which extends hyperelastic material models to allow for the Mullins effect. It is used in several commercial finite element codes, and is named for R.W. Ogden and D. G. Roxburgh.
The basis of pseudo-elas ...
*Rubber elasticity
Rubber elasticity refers to a property of crosslinked rubber: it can be stretched by up to a factor of 10 from its original length and, when released, returns very nearly to its original length. This can be repeated many times with no apparent de ...
*Stress measures In continuum mechanics, the most commonly used measure of stress is the Cauchy stress tensor, often called simply ''the'' stress tensor or "true stress". However, several alternative measures of stress can be defined:
#The Kirchhoff stress (\boldsy ...
*Stress (mechanics)
In continuum mechanics, stress is a physical quantity. It is a quantity that describes the magnitude of forces that cause deformation. Stress is defined as ''force per unit area''. When an object is pulled apart by a force it will cause elon ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hyperelastic Material
Continuum mechanics
Elasticity (physics)
Rubber properties
Solid mechanics