HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

In
mathematical logic Mathematical logic is the study of formal logic within mathematics. Major subareas include model theory, proof theory, set theory, and recursion theory. Research in mathematical logic commonly addresses the mathematical properties of formal s ...
and
computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to practical disciplines (includin ...
, homotopy type theory (HoTT ) refers to various lines of development of
intuitionistic type theory Intuitionistic type theory (also known as constructive type theory, or Martin-Löf type theory) is a type theory and an alternative foundation of mathematics. Intuitionistic type theory was created by Per Martin-Löf, a Swedish mathematician an ...
, based on the interpretation of types as objects to which the intuition of (abstract)
homotopy theory In mathematics, homotopy theory is a systematic study of situations in which maps can come with homotopies between them. It originated as a topic in algebraic topology but nowadays is studied as an independent discipline. Besides algebraic topolog ...
applies. This includes, among other lines of work, the construction of homotopical and higher-categorical models for such type theories; the use of type theory as a logic (or internal language) for abstract homotopy theory and
higher category theory In mathematics, higher category theory is the part of category theory at a ''higher order'', which means that some equalities are replaced by explicit arrows in order to be able to explicitly study the structure behind those equalities. Higher cate ...
; the development of mathematics within a type-theoretic
foundation Foundation may refer to: * Foundation (nonprofit), a type of charitable organization ** Foundation (United States law), a type of charitable organization in the U.S. ** Private foundation, a charitable organization that, while serving a good cause ...
(including both previously existing mathematics and new mathematics that homotopical types make possible); and the formalization of each of these in computer proof assistants. There is a large overlap between the work referred to as homotopy type theory, and as the
univalent foundations Univalent foundations are an approach to the foundations of mathematics in which mathematical structures are built out of objects called ''types''. Types in univalent foundations do not correspond exactly to anything in set-theoretic foundations, b ...
project. Although neither is precisely delineated, and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, the choice of usage also sometimes corresponds to differences in viewpoint and emphasis. As such, this article may not represent the views of all researchers in the fields equally. This kind of variability is unavoidable when a field is in rapid flux.


History


Prehistory: the groupoid model

At one time the idea that types in intensional type theory with their identity types could be regarded as groupoids was
mathematical folklore In common mathematical parlance, a mathematical result is called folklore if it is an unpublished result with no clear originator, but which is well-circulated and believed to be true among the specialists. More specifically, folk mathematics, or ...
. It was first made precise semantically in the 1998 paper of Martin Hofmann and Thomas Streicher called "The groupoid interpretation of type theory", in which they showed that intensional type theory had a model in the category of
groupoid In mathematics, especially in category theory and homotopy theory, a groupoid (less often Brandt groupoid or virtual group) generalises the notion of group in several equivalent ways. A groupoid can be seen as a: *'' Group'' with a partial funct ...
s. This was the first truly " homotopical" model of type theory, albeit only "1-
dimension In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus, a line has a dimension of one (1D) because only one coordin ...
al" (the traditional models in the
category of sets In the mathematical field of category theory, the category of sets, denoted as Set, is the category whose objects are sets. The arrows or morphisms between sets ''A'' and ''B'' are the total functions from ''A'' to ''B'', and the composition of ...
being homotopically 0-dimensional). Their paper also foreshadowed several later developments in homotopy type theory. For instance, they noted that the groupoid model satisfies a rule they called "universe extensionality", which is none other than the restriction to 1-types of the ''univalence axiom'' that
Vladimir Voevodsky Vladimir Alexandrovich Voevodsky (, russian: Влади́мир Алекса́ндрович Воево́дский; 4 June 1966 – 30 September 2017) was a Russian-American mathematician. His work in developing a homotopy theory for algebraic va ...
proposed ten years later. (The axiom for 1-types is notably simpler to formulate, however, since a coherent notion of "equivalence" is not required.) They also defined "categories with isomorphism as equality" and conjectured that in a model using higher-dimensional groupoids, for such categories one would have "equivalence is equality"; this was later proven by Benedikt Ahrens, Krzysztof Kapulkin, and Michael Shulman.


Early history: model categories and higher groupoids

The first higher-dimensional models of intensional type theory were constructed by Steve Awodey and his student Michael Warren in 2005 using Quillen model categories. These results were first presented in public at the conference FMCS 2006 at which Warren gave a talk titled "Homotopy models of intensional type theory", which also served as his thesis prospectus (the dissertation committee present were Awodey, Nicola Gambino and Alex Simpson). A summary is contained in Warren's thesis prospectus abstract. At a subsequent workshop about identity types at
Uppsala University Uppsala University ( sv, Uppsala universitet) is a public research university in Uppsala, Sweden. Founded in 1477, it is the oldest university in Sweden and the Nordic countries still in operation. The university rose to significance duri ...
in 2006 there were two talks about the relation between intensional type theory and factorization systems: one by Richard Garner, "Factorisation systems for type theory", and one by Michael Warren, "Model categories and intensional identity types". Related ideas were discussed in the talks by Steve Awodey, "Type theory of higher-dimensional categories", and Thomas Streicher, "Identity types vs. weak omega-groupoids: some ideas, some problems". At the same conference Benno van den Berg gave a talk titled "Types as weak omega-categories" where he outlined the ideas that later became the subject of a joint paper with Richard Garner. All early constructions of higher dimensional models had to deal with the problem of coherence typical of models of dependent type theory, and various solutions were developed. One such was given in 2009 by Voevodsky, another in 2010 by van den Berg and Garner. A general solution, building on Voevodsky's construction, was eventually given by Lumsdaine and Warren in 2014. At the PSSL86 in 2007 Awodey gave a talk titled "Homotopy type theory" (this was the first public usage of that term, which was coined by Awodey). Awodey and Warren summarized their results in the paper "Homotopy theoretic models of identity types", which was posted on the
ArXiv arXiv (pronounced "archive"—the X represents the Greek letter chi ⟨χ⟩) is an open-access repository of electronic preprints and postprints (known as e-prints) approved for posting after moderation, but not peer review. It consists of ...
preprint server in 2007 and published in 2009; a more detailed version appeared in Warren's thesis "Homotopy theoretic aspects of constructive type theory" in 2008. At about the same time, Vladimir Voevodsky was independently investigating type theory in the context of the search of a language for practical formalization of mathematics. In September 2006 he posted to the Types mailing list "A very short note on homotopy
lambda calculus Lambda calculus (also written as ''λ''-calculus) is a formal system in mathematical logic for expressing computation based on function abstraction and application using variable binding and substitution. It is a universal model of computation t ...
", which sketched the outlines of a type theory with dependent products, sums and universes and of a model of this type theory in Kan
simplicial set In mathematics, a simplicial set is an object composed of ''simplices'' in a specific way. Simplicial sets are higher-dimensional generalizations of directed graphs, partially ordered sets and categories. Formally, a simplicial set may be defined ...
s. It began by saying "The homotopy λ-calculus is a hypothetical (at the moment) type system" and ended with "At the moment much of what I said above is at the level of conjectures. Even the definition of the model of TS in the homotopy category is non-trivial" referring to the complex coherence issues that were not resolved until 2009. This note included a syntactic definition of "equality types" that were claimed to be interpreted in the model by path-spaces, but did not consider
Per Martin-Löf Per Erik Rutger Martin-Löf (; ; born 8 May 1942) is a Swedish logician, philosopher, and mathematical statistician. He is internationally renowned for his work on the foundations of probability, statistics, mathematical logic, and computer sc ...
's rules for identity types. It also stratified the universes by homotopy dimension in addition to size, an idea that later was mostly discarded. On the syntactic side, Benno van den Berg conjectured in 2006 that the tower of identity types of a type in intensional type theory should have the structure of an ω-category, and indeed a ω-groupoid, in the "globular, algebraic" sense of Michael Batanin. This was later proven independently by van den Berg and Garner in the paper "Types are weak omega-groupoids" (published 2008), and by Peter Lumsdaine in the paper "Weak ω-Categories from Intensional Type Theory" (published 2009) and as part of his 2010 Ph.D. thesis "Higher Categories from Type Theories".


The univalence axiom, synthetic homotopy theory, and higher inductive types

The concept of a univalent fibration was introduced by Voevodsky in early 2006. However, because of the insistence of all presentations of the Martin-Löf type theory on the property that the identity types, in the empty context, may contain only reflexivity, Voevodsky did not recognize until 2009 that these identity types can be used in combination with the univalent universes. In particular, the idea that univalence can be introduced simply by adding an axiom to the existing Martin-Löf type theory appeared only in 2009. Also in 2009, Voevodsky worked out more of the details of a model of type theory in
Kan complex In mathematics, Kan complexes and Kan fibrations are part of the theory of simplicial sets. Kan fibrations are the fibrations of the standard model category structure on simplicial sets and are therefore of fundamental importance. Kan complexes ar ...
es, and observed that the existence of a universal
Kan fibration In mathematics, Kan complexes and Kan fibrations are part of the theory of simplicial sets. Kan fibrations are the fibrations of the standard model category structure on simplicial sets and are therefore of fundamental importance. Kan complexes ar ...
could be used to resolve the coherence problems for categorical models of type theory. He also proved, using an idea of A. K. Bousfield, that this universal fibration was univalent: the associated fibration of pairwise homotopy equivalences between the fibers is equivalent to the paths-space fibration of the base. To formulate univalence as an axiom Voevodsky found a way to define "equivalences" syntactically that had the important property that the type representing the statement "f is an equivalence" was (under the assumption of function extensionality) (-1)-truncated (i.e. contractible if inhabited). This enabled him to give a ''syntactic'' statement of univalence, generalizing Hofmann and Streicher's "universe extensionality" to higher dimensions. He was also able to use these definitions of equivalences and contractibility to start developing significant amounts of "synthetic homotopy theory" in the proof assistant Coq; this formed the basis of the library later called "Foundations" and eventually "UniMath".GitHub repository, Univalent Mathematics
/ref> Unification of the various threads began in February 2010 with an informal meeting at
Carnegie Mellon University Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) is a private research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. One of its predecessors was established in 1900 by Andrew Carnegie as the Carnegie Technical Schools; it became the Carnegie Institute of Technolog ...
, where Voevodsky presented his model in Kan complexes and his Coq code to a group including Awodey, Warren, Lumsdaine, Robert Harper, Dan Licata, Michael Shulman, and others. This meeting produced the outlines of a proof (by Warren, Lumsdaine, Licata, and Shulman) that every homotopy equivalence is an equivalence (in Voevodsky's good coherent sense), based on the idea from category theory of improving equivalences to adjoint equivalences. Soon afterwards, Voevodsky proved that the univalence axiom implies function extensionality. The next pivotal event was a mini-workshop at the
Mathematical Research Institute of Oberwolfach The Oberwolfach Research Institute for Mathematics (german: Mathematisches Forschungsinstitut Oberwolfach) is a center for mathematical research in Oberwolfach, Germany. It was founded by mathematician Wilhelm Süss in 1944. It organizes wee ...
in March 2011 organized by Steve Awodey, Richard Garner, Per Martin-Löf, and Vladimir Voevodsky, titled "The homotopy interpretation of constructive type theory". As part of a Coq tutorial for this workshop, Andrej Bauer wrote a small Coq library based on Voevodsky's ideas (but not actually using any of his code); this eventually became the kernel of the first version of the "HoTT" Coq library (the first commit of the latter by Michael Shulman notes "Development based on Andrej Bauer's files, with many ideas taken from Vladimir Voevodsky's files"). One of the most important things to come out of the Oberwolfach meeting was the basic idea of higher inductive types, due to Lumsdaine, Shulman, Bauer, and Warren. The participants also formulated a list of important open questions, such as whether the univalence axiom satisfies canonicity (still open, although some special cases have been resolved positively), whether the univalence axiom has nonstandard models (since answered positively by Shulman), and how to define (semi)simplicial types (still open in MLTT, although it can be done in Voevodsky's Homotopy Type System (HTS), a type theory with two equality types). Soon after the Oberwolfach workshop, the ''Homotopy Type Theory website and blog'' was established, and the subject began to be popularized under that name. An idea of some of the important progress during this period can be obtained from the blog history.


Univalent foundations

The phrase "univalent foundations" is agreed by all to be closely related to homotopy type theory, but not everyone uses it in the same way. It was originally used by Vladimir Voevodsky to refer to his vision of a foundational system for mathematics in which the basic objects are homotopy types, based on a type theory satisfying § the univalence axiom, and formalized in a computer proof assistant. As Voevodsky's work became integrated with the community of other researchers working on homotopy type theory, "univalent foundations" was sometimes used interchangeably with "homotopy type theory", and other times to refer only to its use as a foundational system (excluding, for example, the study of model-categorical semantics or computational metatheory). For instance, the subject of the IAS special year was officially given as "univalent foundations", although a lot of the work done there focused on semantics and metatheory in addition to foundations. The book produced by participants in the IAS program was titled "Homotopy type theory: Univalent foundations of mathematics"; although this could refer to either usage, since the book only discusses HoTT as a mathematical foundation.


Special Year on Univalent Foundations of Mathematics

In 2012–13 researchers at the
Institute for Advanced Study The Institute for Advanced Study (IAS), located in Princeton, New Jersey, in the United States, is an independent center for theoretical research and intellectual inquiry. It has served as the academic home of internationally preeminent schola ...
held "A Special Year on Univalent Foundations of Mathematics". The special year brought together researchers in
topology In mathematics, topology (from the Greek words , and ) is concerned with the properties of a geometric object that are preserved under continuous deformations, such as stretching, twisting, crumpling, and bending; that is, without closing ...
,
computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to practical disciplines (includin ...
,
category theory Category theory is a general theory of mathematical structures and their relations that was introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in the middle of the 20th century in their foundational work on algebraic topology. Nowadays, cat ...
, and
mathematical logic Mathematical logic is the study of formal logic within mathematics. Major subareas include model theory, proof theory, set theory, and recursion theory. Research in mathematical logic commonly addresses the mathematical properties of formal s ...
. The program was organized by Steve Awodey, Thierry Coquand and
Vladimir Voevodsky Vladimir Alexandrovich Voevodsky (, russian: Влади́мир Алекса́ндрович Воево́дский; 4 June 1966 – 30 September 2017) was a Russian-American mathematician. His work in developing a homotopy theory for algebraic va ...
. During the program Peter Aczel, who was one of the participants, initiated a working group which investigated how to do type theory informally but rigorously, in a style that is analogous to ordinary mathematicians doing set theory. After initial experiments it became clear that this was not only possible but highly beneficial, and that a book (the so-called HoTT Book) could and should be written. Many other participants of the project then joined the effort with technical support, writing, proof reading, and offering ideas. Unusually for a mathematics text, it was developed collaboratively and in the open on
GitHub GitHub, Inc. () is an Internet hosting service for software development and version control using Git. It provides the distributed version control of Git plus access control, bug tracking, software feature requests, task management, conti ...
, is released under a
Creative Commons license A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted "work".A "work" is any creative material made by a person. A painting, a graphic, a book, a song/lyri ...
that allows people to
fork In cutlery or kitchenware, a fork (from la, furca 'pitchfork') is a utensil, now usually made of metal, whose long handle terminates in a head that branches into several narrow and often slightly curved tines with which one can spear foods ei ...
their own version of the book, and is both purchasable in print and downloadable free of charge. More generally, the special year was a catalyst for the development of the entire subject; the HoTT Book was only one, albeit the most visible, result. Official participants in the special year * Peter Aczel * Benedikt Ahrens * Thorsten Altenkirch * Steve Awodey * Bruno Barras * Andrej Bauer * Yves Bertot * Marc Bezem * Thierry Coquand * Eric Finster * Daniel Grayson * Hugo Herbelin *
André Joyal André Joyal (; born 1943) is a professor of mathematics at the Université du Québec à Montréal who works on category theory. He was a member of the School of Mathematics at the Institute for Advanced Study in 2013, where he was invited to j ...
* Dan Licata * Peter Lumsdaine * Assia Mahboubi *
Per Martin-Löf Per Erik Rutger Martin-Löf (; ; born 8 May 1942) is a Swedish logician, philosopher, and mathematical statistician. He is internationally renowned for his work on the foundations of probability, statistics, mathematical logic, and computer sc ...
* Sergey Melikhov * Alvaro Pelayo * Andrew Polonsky * Michael Shulman * Matthieu Sozeau * Bas Spitters * Benno van den Berg *
Vladimir Voevodsky Vladimir Alexandrovich Voevodsky (, russian: Влади́мир Алекса́ндрович Воево́дский; 4 June 1966 – 30 September 2017) was a Russian-American mathematician. His work in developing a homotopy theory for algebraic va ...
* Michael Warren * Noam Zeilberger '' ACM Computing Reviews'' listed the book as a notable 2013 publication in the category "mathematics of computing".


Key concepts


"Propositions as types"

HoTT uses a modified version of the " propositions as types" interpretation of type theory, according to which types can also represent propositions and terms can then represent proofs. In HoTT, however, unlike in standard "propositions as types", a special role is played by 'mere propositions' which, roughly speaking, are those types having at most one term, up to propositional equality. These are more like conventional logical propositions than are general types, in that they are proof-irrelevant.


Equality

The fundamental concept of homotopy type theory is the
path A path is a route for physical travel – see Trail. Path or PATH may also refer to: Physical paths of different types * Bicycle path * Bridle path, used by people on horseback * Course (navigation), the intended path of a vehicle * Desire ...
. In HoTT, the type a = b is the type of all paths from the point a to the point b. (Therefore, a proof that a point a equals a point b is the same thing as a path from the point a to the point b.) For any point a, there exists a path of type a = a, corresponding to the reflexive property of equality. A path of type a = b can be inverted, forming a path of type b = a, corresponding to the symmetric property of equality. Two paths of type a = b resp. b = c can be concatenated, forming a path of type a = c; this corresponds to the transitive property of equality. Most importantly, given a path p:a=b, and a proof of some property P(a), the proof can be "transported" along the path p to yield a proof of the property P(b). (Equivalently stated, an object of type P(a) can be turned into an object of type P(b).) This corresponds to the substitution property of equality. Here, an important difference between HoTT and classical mathematics comes in. In classical mathematics, once the equality of two values a and b has been established, a and b may be used interchangeably thereafter, with no regard to any distinction between them. In homotopy type theory, however, there may be multiple different paths a = b, and transporting an object along two different paths will yield two different results. Therefore, in homotopy type theory, when applying the substitution property, it is necessary to state which path is being used. In general, a "proposition" can have multiple different proofs. (For example, the type of all natural numbers, when considered as a proposition, has every natural number as a proof.) Even if a proposition has only one proof a, the space of paths a = a may be non-trivial in some way. A "mere proposition" is any type which either is empty, or contains only one point with a trivial path space. Note that people write a = b for Id_A(a,b), thereby leaving the type A of a, b implicit. Do not confuse it with id_A : A\to A, denoting the identity function on A.


Type equivalence

Two types A and B belonging to some universe U are defined as being ''equivalent'' if there exists an ''equivalence'' between them. An equivalence is a function :f:A \to B which has both a left inverse and a right inverse, in the sense that for suitably chosen g and h, the following types are both inhabited: :Id_(f \circ g, id_B), :Id_(h \circ f, id_A). i.e. :f \circ g =_ id_B, :h \circ f =_ id_A. This expresses a general notion of "f has both a left inverse and right inverse", using equality types. Note that the invertibility conditions above are equality types in the function types A\rarr A and B\rarr B. One generally assumes the function extensionality axiom, which ensures that these are equivalent to the following types that express invertibility using the equality on the domain and codomain A and B: :\Pi_.\ Id_B((f \circ g)(y), id_B(y)), :\Pi_.\ Id_A((h \circ f)(x), id_A(x)). i.e. for all x:A and y:B, :f(g(y)) =_B y, :h(f(x)) =_A x. The functions of type :A \to B together with a proof that they are equivalences are denoted by :A \simeq B.


The univalence axiom

Having defined functions that are equivalences as above, one can show that there is a canonical way to turn paths to equivalences. In other words, there is a function of the type :(A = B) \to (A \simeq B), which expresses that types A,B that are equal are, in particular, also equivalent. The univalence axiom states that this function is itself an equivalence.Martín Hötzel Escardó (October 18, 2018
A self-contained, brief and complete formulation of Voevodsky’s Univalence Axiom
/ref> Therefore, we have : (A = B) \simeq (A \simeq B) "In other words, identity is equivalent to equivalence. In particular, one may say that 'equivalent types are identical'." Martín Hötzel Escardó has shown that the property of univalence "is undecided in Martin-Löf Type Theory (MLTT)".


Applications


Theorem proving

Advocates claim that HoTT allows mathematical proofs to be translated into a
computer programming language A programming language is a system of notation for writing computer programs. Most programming languages are text-based formal languages, but they may also be graphical. They are a kind of computer language. The description of a programming l ...
for computer proof assistants much more easily than before. They argue this approach increases the potential for computers to check difficult proofs. However, these claims aren't universally accepted and many research efforts and proof assistants don't make use of HoTT. HoTT adopts the univalence axiom, which relates the equality of logical-mathematical propositions to homotopy theory. An equation such as "a=b" is a mathematical proposition in which two different symbols have the same value. In homotopy type theory, this is taken to mean that the two shapes which represent the values of the symbols are topologically equivalent. These equivalence relationships,
ETH Zürich (colloquially) , former_name = eidgenössische polytechnische Schule , image = ETHZ.JPG , image_size = , established = , type = Public , budget = CHF 1.896 billion (2021) , rector = Günther Dissertori , president = Joël Mesot , a ...
Institute for Theoretical Studies director Giovanni Felder argues, can be better formulated in homotopy theory because it is more comprehensive: Homotopy theory explains not only why "a equals b" but also how to derive this. In set theory, this information would have to be defined additionally, which, advocates argue, makes the translation of mathematical propositions into programming languages more difficult.


Computer programming

As of 2015, intense research work was underway to model and formally analyse the computational behavior of the univalence axiom in homotopy type theory. ''Cubical type theory'' is one attempt to give computational content to homotopy type theory. However, it is believed that certain objects, such as semi-simplicial types, cannot be constructed without reference to some notion of exact equality. Therefore, various ''two-level type theories'' have been developed which partition their types into fibrant types, which respect paths, and non-fibrant types, which do not. Cartesian cubical computational type theory is the first two-level type theory which gives a full computational interpretation to homotopy type theory. (to appear)


See also

*
Calculus of constructions In mathematical logic and computer science, the calculus of constructions (CoC) is a type theory created by Thierry Coquand. It can serve as both a typed programming language and as constructive foundation for mathematics. For this second reas ...
*
Curry–Howard correspondence In programming language theory and proof theory, the Curry–Howard correspondence (also known as the Curry–Howard isomorphism or equivalence, or the proofs-as-programs and propositions- or formulae-as-types interpretation) is the direct relati ...
*
Intuitionistic type theory Intuitionistic type theory (also known as constructive type theory, or Martin-Löf type theory) is a type theory and an alternative foundation of mathematics. Intuitionistic type theory was created by Per Martin-Löf, a Swedish mathematician an ...
* Homotopy hypothesis *
Univalent foundations Univalent foundations are an approach to the foundations of mathematics in which mathematical structures are built out of objects called ''types''. Types in univalent foundations do not correspond exactly to anything in set-theoretic foundations, b ...


Notes


References


Bibliography

*
GitHub version
cited in this article.) * A
PDF
* * * A
postscript
* * * *


Further reading

* David Corfield (2020), ''Modal Homotopy Type Theory: The Prospect of a New Logic for Philosophy'', Oxford University Press.


External links

* *
Homotopy type theory wiki




by Steve Awodey
"Constructive Type Theory and Homotopy"
– Video lecture by Steve Awodey at the
Institute for Advanced Study The Institute for Advanced Study (IAS), located in Princeton, New Jersey, in the United States, is an independent center for theoretical research and intellectual inquiry. It has served as the academic home of internationally preeminent schola ...


Libraries of formalized mathematics

* * * * (now integrated into UniMath, where further development takes place) * * {{Foundations-footer Foundations of mathematics Type theory Homotopy theory Formal methods Articles containing video clips