
Heat transfer is a discipline of
thermal engineering
Thermal engineering is a specialized sub-discipline of mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering is an engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and oth ...
that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of
thermal energy
Thermal radiation in visible light can be seen on this hot metalwork.
Thermal energy refers to several distinct physical concepts, such as the internal energy of a system; heat or sensible heat, which are defined as types of energy transfer (as is ...
(
heat
In thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, Work (thermodynamics), work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these ...

) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as
thermal conduction
Thermal conduction is the transfer of by microscopic collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential en ...

,
thermal convection
Convection (or convective heat transfer) is the transfer of heat from one place to another due to the movement of fluid. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer, convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of ...
,
thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space an ...
, and transfer of energy by
phase changes
In chemistry
Chemistry is the scientific discipline involved with Chemical element, elements and chemical compound, compounds composed of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they und ...

. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species (mass transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously in the same system.
Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles (such as molecules) or quasiparticles (such as lattice waves) through the boundary between two systems. When an object is at a different
temperature
Temperature ( ) is a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold. It is the manifestation of thermal energy
Thermal radiation in visible light can be seen on this hot metalwork.
Thermal energy refers to several distinct physical concept ...

from another body or its surroundings,
heat
In thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, Work (thermodynamics), work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these ...

flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point they are in
thermal equilibrium
Two physical system
A physical system is a collection of physical objects.
In physics, it is a portion of the physical universe chosen for analysis. Everything outside the system is known as the environment (systems), environment. The enviro ...

. Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature, as described in the
second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics establishes the concept of entropy
Entropy is a scientific concept, as well as a measurable physical property that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty. The term an ...
.
Heat convection occurs when the bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries its heat through the fluid. All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural convection". The former process is often called "forced convection." In this case, the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan, or other mechanical means.
Thermal radiation occurs through a
vacuum
A vacuum is a space
Space is the boundless three-dimensional
Three-dimensional space (also: 3-space or, rarely, tri-dimensional space) is a geometric setting in which three values (called parameter
A parameter (from the Ancient Gr ...

or any
transparent
Transparency, transparence or transparent most often refer to transparency and translucency, the physical property of allowing the transmission of light through a material.
They may also refer to:
Literal uses
* Transparency (photography), a sti ...
medium
Medium may refer to:
Science and technology
Aviation
*Medium bomber, a class of war plane
*Tecma Medium, a French hang glider design
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to store and deliver information or data
* Medium of i ...
(
solid
Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter
4 (four) is a number
A number is a mathematical object
A mathematical object is an abstract concept arising in mathematics.
In the usual language of mathematics, an ''object'' is an ...

or
fluid
In physics
Physics is the that studies , its , its and behavior through , and the related entities of and . "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular s ...
or
gas
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space ...

). It is the transfer of energy by means of
photons
The photon ( el, φῶς, phōs, light) is a type of elementary particle. It is the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light and radio waves, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. Photo ...
or
electromagnetic waves
In physics
Physics (from grc, φυσική (ἐπιστήμη), physikḗ (epistḗmē), knowledge of nature, from ''phýsis'' 'nature'), , is the natural science that studies matter, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through ...

governed by the same laws.
Overview
Heat
In thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, Work (thermodynamics), work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these ...

is defined in physics as the transfer of
thermal energy
Thermal radiation in visible light can be seen on this hot metalwork.
Thermal energy refers to several distinct physical concepts, such as the internal energy of a system; heat or sensible heat, which are defined as types of energy transfer (as is ...
across a well-defined boundary around a
thermodynamic system
A thermodynamic system is a body of matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, whic ...
. The
thermodynamic free energy
The thermodynamic free energy is a concept useful in the thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, Work (thermodynamics), work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properti ...
is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform.
Enthalpy
Enthalpy , a property of a thermodynamic system, is the sum of the system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant p ...

is a
thermodynamic potential
A thermodynamic potential (or more accurately, a thermodynamic potential energy)ISO/IEC 80000-5, Quantities an units, Part 5 - Thermodynamics, item 5-20.4 Helmholtz energy, Helmholtz functionISO/IEC 80000-5, Quantities an units, Part 5 - Thermodyn ...
, designated by the letter "H", that is the sum of the
internal energy
The internal energy of a thermodynamic system
A thermodynamic system is a body of matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that ca ...
of the system (U) plus the product of
pressure
Pressure (symbol: ''p'' or ''P'') is the force
In physics, a force is an influence that can change the motion (physics), motion of an Physical object, object. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (e.g. moving fr ...

(P) and
volume
Volume is a scalar quantity expressing the amount
Quantity or amount is a property that can exist as a multitude
Multitude is a term for a group of people who cannot be classed under any other distinct category, except for their shared fact ...

(V).
Joule
The joule ( ; symbol: J) is a derived unit of energy
In physics
Physics is the that studies , its , its and behavior through , and the related entities of and . "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates ...

is a unit to quantify
energy
In physics
Physics is the that studies , its , its and behavior through , and the related entities of and . "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regula ...

, work, or the amount of heat.
Heat transfer is a
process function
In thermodynamics, a quantity that is well defined so as to describe the path of a process through the equilibrium state space of a thermodynamic system
A thermodynamic system is a body of matter and/or radiation, confined in space by walls, w ...
(or path function), as opposed to
functions of state
In the thermodynamics of equilibrium, a state function, function of state, or point function is a function defined for a system
A system is a group of Interaction, interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form ...
; therefore, the amount of heat transferred in a
thermodynamic process
Classical thermodynamics considers three main kinds of thermodynamic process: (1) changes in a system, (2) cycles in a system, and (3) flow processes.
(1) A change in a system is defined by a passage from an initial to a final state of thermodyna ...
that changes the
state
State may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Literature
* ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State
* The State (newspaper), ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, Un ...
of a
system
A system is a group of Interaction, interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole.
A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described by its boundaries, structure and purp ...
depends on how that process occurs, not only the net difference between the initial and final states of the process.
Thermodynamic and
mechanical
Mechanical may refer to:
Machine
* Mechanical system
A machine is any physical system with ordered structural and functional properties. It may represent human-made or naturally occurring device molecular machine
A molecular machine, nan ...

heat transfer is calculated with the
heat transfer coefficient The heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient, or film effectiveness, in thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, Work (thermodynamics), work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and th ...
, the
proportionality between the
heat flux
Heat flux
of \mathbf(\mathbf) with the unit normal vector \mathbf(\mathbf) ''(blue arrows)'' at the point \mathbf multiplied by the area dS. The sum of \mathbf\cdot\mathbf dS for each patch on the surface is the flux through the surface
Flux ...
and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat. Heat flux is a quantitative, vectorial representation of heat-flow through a surface.
In engineering contexts, the term ''heat'' is taken as synonymous to thermal energy. This usage has its origin in the
historical interpretation of heat as a fluid (''caloric'') that can be transferred by various causes,
[
] and that is also common in the language of laymen and everyday life.
The
transport
Transport (in British English
British English (BrE) is the standard dialect
A standard language (also standard variety, standard dialect, and standard) is a language variety that has undergone substantial codification of grammar and ...
equations for thermal energy (
Fourier's law
Thermal conduction is the transfer of internal energy by microscopic collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic a ...
), mechanical momentum (
Newton's law for fluids), and mass transfer (
Fick's laws of diffusion
Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion
File:DiffusionMicroMacro.gif, 250px, Diffusion from a microscopic and macroscopic point of view. Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (purple line) and none on the rig ...
) are similar,
[
] and analogies among these three transport processes have been developed to facilitate prediction of conversion from any one to the others.
[
]Thermal engineering
Thermal engineering is a specialized sub-discipline of mechanical engineering
Mechanical engineering is an engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and oth ...
concerns the generation, use, conversion, storage, and exchange of heat transfer. As such, heat transfer is involved in almost every sector of the economy. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction
Thermal conduction is the transfer of by microscopic collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential en ...

, thermal convection
Convection (or convective heat transfer) is the transfer of heat from one place to another due to the movement of fluid. Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer, convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of ...
, thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space an ...
, and transfer of energy by phase changes
In chemistry
Chemistry is the scientific discipline involved with Chemical element, elements and chemical compound, compounds composed of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they und ...

.
Mechanisms
The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:
;Advection
In the field of physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space and time, and the related entities of energy ...
: Advection is the transport mechanism of a fluid
In physics
Physics is the that studies , its , its and behavior through , and the related entities of and . "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular s ...
from one location to another, and is dependent on motion
Image:Leaving Yongsan Station.jpg, 300px, Motion involves a change in position
In physics, motion is the phenomenon in which an object changes its position (mathematics), position over time. Motion is mathematically described in terms of Displacem ...
and momentum
In Newtonian mechanics, linear momentum, translational momentum, or simply momentum is the product of the mass
Mass is the quantity
Quantity is a property that can exist as a multitude or magnitude, which illustrate discontinui ...

of that fluid.
; or diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of anything (for example, atoms, ions, molecules, energy) generally from a region of higher concentration
In chemistry
Chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of . It is a that covers ...

: The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact. Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat. It is commonly denoted by k, \lambda, or \kappa.
Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of high thermal ...

is the property of a material to conduct heat and evaluated primarily in terms of Fourier's Law
Thermal conduction is the transfer of internal energy by microscopic collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic a ...
for heat conduction.
;Convection
Convection is single or multiphase fluid flow that occurs Spontaneous process, spontaneously due to the combined effects of material property heterogeneity and body forces on a fluid, most commonly density and gravity (see buoyancy). When t ...
: The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion. The average temperature is a reference for evaluating properties related to convective heat transfer.
;Radiation
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space and time, and the related entities of energy and f ...
: The transfer of energy by the emission of electromagnetic radiation
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. ...

.
Advection
By transferring matter, energy—including thermal energy—is moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object from one place to another. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example is thermal hydraulics. This can be described by the formula:
:
where
* is heat flux
Heat flux
of \mathbf(\mathbf) with the unit normal vector \mathbf(\mathbf) ''(blue arrows)'' at the point \mathbf multiplied by the area dS. The sum of \mathbf\cdot\mathbf dS for each patch on the surface is the flux through the surface
Flux ...
(W/m2),
* is density (kg/m3),
* is heat capacity at constant pressure (J/kg·K),
* is the difference in temperature (K),
* is velocity (m/s).
Conduction
On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in thermal contactIn heat transfer and thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, Work (thermodynamics), work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation, and physical properties of matter. The behavior of these quanti ...
. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive. Thermal contact conductanceIn physics
Physics (from grc, φυσική (ἐπιστήμη), physikḗ (epistḗmē), knowledge of nature, from ''phýsis'' 'nature'), , is the natural science that studies matter, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spac ...
is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact. The process of heat transfer from one place to another place without the movement of particles is called conduction, such as when placing a hand on a cold glass of water—heat is conducted from the warm skin to the cold glass, but if the hand is held a few inches from the glass, little conduction would occur since air is a poor conductor of heat. Steady state conduction is an idealized model of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the conduction is constant, so that after a time, the spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further (see Fourier's law
Thermal conduction is the transfer of internal energy by microscopic collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic a ...
). In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out, since the change in temperature (a measure of heat energy) is zero. An example of steady state conduction is the heat flow through walls of a warm house on a cold day—inside the house is maintained at a high temperature and, outside, the temperature stays low, so the transfer of heat per unit time stays near a constant rate determined by the insulation in the wall and the spatial distribution of temperature in the walls will be approximately constant over time.
''Transient conduction'' (see Heat equation
In mathematics
Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as numbers (arithmetic and number theory), formulas and related structures (algebra), shapes and spaces in which they are contained (geometry), and quantities and ...
) occurs when the temperature within an object changes as a function of time. Analysis of transient systems is more complex, and analytic solutions of the heat equation are only valid for idealized model systems. Practical applications are generally investigated using numerical methods, approximation techniques, or empirical study.
Convection
The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural convection". All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by using a pump, fan or other mechanical means.
Convective heat transfer, or simply, convection, is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids
In physics
Physics (from grc, φυσική (ἐπιστήμη), physikḗ (epistḗmē), knowledge of nature, from ''phýsis'' 'nature'), , is the natural science that studies matter, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through ...

, a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer
Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location, usually meaning stream, phase, fraction or component, to another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption
Absorption may refer to:
Chemistry and biology
*Absorptio ...
. Bulk motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations, such as (for example) between a solid surface and the fluid. Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Although sometimes discussed as a third method of heat transfer, convection is usually used to describe the combined effects of heat conduction within the fluid (diffusion) and heat transference by bulk fluid flow streaming. The process of transport by fluid streaming is known as advection, but pure advection is a term that is generally associated only with mass transport in fluids, such as advection of pebbles in a river. In the case of heat transfer in fluids, where transport by advection in a fluid is always also accompanied by transport via heat diffusion (also known as heat conduction) the process of heat convection is understood to refer to the sum of heat transport by advection and diffusion/conduction.
Free, or natural, convection occurs when bulk fluid motions (streams and currents) are caused by buoyancy forces that result from density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid. ''Forced'' convection is a term used when the streams and currents in the fluid are induced by external means—such as fans, stirrers, and pumps—creating an artificially induced convection current.
Convection-cooling
Convective cooling is sometimes described as Newton's law of cooling
Newton's law of cooling states that ''the rate of heat
In thermodynamics, heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by mechanisms other than thermodynamic work or transfer of matter. The various mechanisms of energy tr ...
:
However, by definition, the validity of Newton's law of Cooling requires that the rate of heat loss from convection be a linear function of ("proportional to") the temperature difference that drives heat transfer, and in convective cooling this is sometimes not the case. In general, convection is not linearly dependent on temperature gradient
A temperature gradient is a physical quantity
A physical quantity is a physical property of a material or system that can be Quantification (science), quantified by measurement. A physical quantity can be expressed as a ''value'', which is the alge ...
s, and in some cases is strongly nonlinear. In these cases, Newton's law does not apply.
Convection vs. conduction
In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction and convection can be considered to compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great, fluid moving down by convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped due to its buoyancy
Buoyancy (), or upthrust, is an upward exerted by a that opposes the of a partially or fully immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the pressure at the bo ...

, while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by conduction so fast that its driving buoyancy will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is very low, a large temperature gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong.
The Rayleigh number In fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics
Physics is the that studies , its , its and behavior through , and the related entities of and . "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order ...
() is the product of the Grashof () and Prandtl () numbers. It is a measure which determines the relative strength of conduction and convection.
:
where
*''g'' is acceleration due to gravity,
*ρ is the density with being the density difference between the lower and upper ends,
*μ is the dynamic viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water
Water is an Inorganic ...
,
*α is the Thermal diffusivityIn heat transfer analysis, thermal diffusivity is the thermal conductivity divided by density and specific heat capacity at constant pressure. It measures the rate of transfer of heat of a material from the hot end to the cold end. It has the SI deri ...
,
*β is the volume thermal expansivity (sometimes denoted ''α'' elsewhere),
*''T'' is the temperature,
*ν is the kinematic viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid
In physics, a fluid is a substance that continually Deformation (mechanics), deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress, or external force. Fluids are a Phase (matter), phase of matter and include liquids, Gas, ...
, and
*''L'' is characteristic length.
The Rayleigh number can be understood as the ratio between the rate of heat transfer by convection to the rate of heat transfer by conduction; or, equivalently, the ratio between the corresponding timescales (i.e. conduction timescale divided by convection timescale), up to a numerical factor. This can be seen as follows, where all calculations are up to numerical factors depending on the geometry of the system.
The buoyancy force driving the convection is roughly , so the corresponding pressure is roughly . In steady state
In systems theory
Systems theory is the interdisciplinary study of system
A system is a group of Interaction, interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole.
A system, surrounded and influen ...

, this is canceled by the shear stress due to viscosity, and therefore roughly equals , where ''V'' is the typical fluid velocity due to convection and the order of its timescale. The conduction timescale, on the other hand, is of the order of .
Convection occurs when the Rayleigh number is above 1,000–2,000.
Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the transfer of energy via thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space an ...
, i.e., electromagnetic waves
In physics
Physics (from grc, φυσική (ἐπιστήμη), physikḗ (epistḗmē), knowledge of nature, from ''phýsis'' 'nature'), , is the natural science that studies matter, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through ...

. It occurs across vacuum
A vacuum is a space
Space is the boundless three-dimensional
Three-dimensional space (also: 3-space or, rarely, tri-dimensional space) is a geometric setting in which three values (called parameter
A parameter (from the Ancient Gr ...

or any transparent
Transparency, transparence or transparent most often refer to transparency and translucency, the physical property of allowing the transmission of light through a material.
They may also refer to:
Literal uses
* Transparency (photography), a sti ...
medium
Medium may refer to:
Science and technology
Aviation
*Medium bomber, a class of war plane
*Tecma Medium, a French hang glider design
Communication
* Media (communication), tools used to store and deliver information or data
* Medium of i ...
(solid
Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter
4 (four) is a number
A number is a mathematical object
A mathematical object is an abstract concept arising in mathematics.
In the usual language of mathematics, an ''object'' is an ...

or fluid
In physics
Physics is the that studies , its , its and behavior through , and the related entities of and . "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular s ...
or gas
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space ...

). Thermal radiation is emitted by all objects at temperatures above absolute zero
Absolute zero is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature
Thermodynamic temperature is the measure of ''absolute temperature'' and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics. A thermodynamic temperature reading of zero deno ...
, due to random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles (protons
A proton is a subatomic particle, symbol or , with a positive electric charge
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric cha ...

and electrons
The electron is a subatomic particle
In physical sciences, subatomic particles are smaller than atom
An atom is the smallest unit of ordinary matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has m ...

), their movement results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. ...

which carries away energy. Radiation is typically only important in engineering applications for very hot objects, or for objects with a large temperature difference.
When the objects and distances separating them are large in size and compared to the wavelength of thermal radiation, the rate of transfer of radiant energy
In physics
Physics is the that studies , its , its and behavior through , and the related entities of and . "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succ ...
is best described by the Stefan-Boltzmann equation. For an object in vacuum, the equation is:
:
For radiative transfer
Radiative transfer is the physical phenomenon of energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The propagation of radiation through a medium is affected by absorption, emission, and scattering
Scattering is a term used in physics to d ...
between two objects, the equation is as follows:
:
where
* is the heat flux
Heat flux
of \mathbf(\mathbf) with the unit normal vector \mathbf(\mathbf) ''(blue arrows)'' at the point \mathbf multiplied by the area dS. The sum of \mathbf\cdot\mathbf dS for each patch on the surface is the flux through the surface
Flux ...
,
* is the emissivity
work iron
Iron () is a chemical element with Symbol (chemistry), symbol Fe (from la, Wikt:ferrum, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 element, group 8 of the periodic table. It is ...
(unity for a black body
A black body or blackbody is an idealized physical object, physical body that absorption (electromagnetic radiation), absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation, regardless of frequency or angle of incidence (optics), angle of incidence. The ...

),
* is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant
The Stefan–Boltzmann constant (also Stefan's constant), a physical constant denoted by the Sigma, Greek letter ''σ'' (sigma), is the constant of proportionality in the Stefan–Boltzmann law: "the total intensity (physics), intensity radi ...
,
* is the view factor
In radiative heat transfer, a view factor, F_, is the proportion of the radiation which leaves surface A that strikes surface B. In a complex 'scene' there can be any number of different objects, which can be divided in turn into even more surface ...
between two surfaces a and b, and
* and are the absolute temperatures (in kelvin
The kelvin is the base unit of temperature
Temperature ( ) is a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold. It is the manifestation of thermal energy
Thermal radiation in visible light can be seen on this hot metalwork.
Thermal en ...

s or degrees Rankine
__NOTOC__
The Rankine scale () is an absolute scale of thermodynamic temperature
Thermodynamic temperature is the measure of ''absolute temperature'' and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics. A thermodynamic temperature readin ...
) for the two objects.
The blackbody limit established by the Stefan-Boltzmann equation can be exceeded when the objects exchanging thermal radiation or the distances separating them are comparable in scale or smaller than the dominant thermal wavelength. The study of these cases is called near-field radiative heat transfer.
Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power. Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation – arriving within a narrow angle i.e. coming from a source much smaller than its distance – can be concentrated in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating solar power
The three towers of the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility
Concentrated solar power (CSP, also known as concentrating solar power, concentrated solar thermal) systems generate solar power
Solar power is the energy transformation, conversion ...
generation or a burning glass A replica (on a smaller scale) of the burning lens owned by Joseph Priestley, in his laboratory
A burning glass or burning lens is a large convex lens
A lens is a transmissive optics, optical device which focuses or disperses a light beam by ...
. For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 solar power tower
The PS10 Solar Power Plant ( es, Planta Solar 10), is the world's first commercial concentrating solar power tower operating near Seville, in Andalusia, Spain. The 11 megawatt (MW) solar power tower produces electricity with 624 large movable ...

and during the day it can heat water to .
The reachable temperature at the target is limited by the temperature of the hot source of radiation. (T4-law lets the reverse-flow of radiation back to the source rise.) The (on its surface) somewhat 4000 K hot sun
The Sun is the star
A star is an astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid of plasma (physics), plasma held together by its own gravity. The List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs, nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many othe ...

allows to reach coarsly 3000 K (or 3000 °C, which is about 3273 K) at a small probe in the focus spot of a big concave, concentrating mirror of the Mont-Louis Solar Furnace
The Mont-Louis Solar Furnace is an experimental solar furnace
A solar furnace is a structure that uses concentrated solar power to produce high temperatures, usually for industry. Parabolic mirrors or heliostats concentrate light (Insolation) ont ...
in France.
Phase transition
Phase transition
In chemistry
Chemistry is the scientific
Science () is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity or awareness, of someone or something, such as facts
A fact is an occurrence in ...
or phase change, takes place in a thermodynamic system
A thermodynamic system is a body of matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, whic ...
from one phase or state of matter
In physics
Physics is the that studies , its , its and behavior through , and the related entities of and . "Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular su ...
to another one by heat transfer. Phase change examples are the melting of ice or the boiling of water.
The Mason equationThe Mason equation is an approximate analytical expression for the growth (due to condensation) or evaporation of a water droplet—it is due to the meteorologist Basil John Mason, B. J. Mason.1. B. J. Mason ''The Physics of Clouds'' (1957) Oxfor ...
explains the growth of a water droplet based on the effects of heat transport on evaporation
Evaporation is a type of vaporization Vaporization (or vaporisation) of an element or compound is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor. There are two types of vaporization: evaporation and boiling. Evaporation is a surface phe ...

and condensation.
Phase transitions involve the four fundamental states of matter
4 (four) is a number
A number is a mathematical object
A mathematical object is an abstract concept arising in mathematics.
In the usual language of mathematics, an ''object'' is anything that has been (or could be) formally defined, and with ...
:
*Solid
Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter
4 (four) is a number
A number is a mathematical object
A mathematical object is an abstract concept arising in mathematics.
In the usual language of mathematics, an ''object'' is an ...

– Deposition, freezing and solid to solid transformation.
*Gas
Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space ...

– Boiling / evaporation, recombination / deionization, and sublimation.
*Liquid
A liquid is a nearly incompressible
In fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics
Mechanics (Ancient Greek, Greek: ) is the area of physics concerned with the motions of physical objects, ...

– Condensation and .
*Plasma
Plasma or plasm may refer to:
Science
* Plasma (physics), one of the four fundamental states of matter
* Plasma (mineral) or heliotrope, a mineral aggregate
* Quark–gluon plasma, a state of matter in quantum chromodynamics
Biology
* Blood plasma ...
– Ionization
Ionization or ionisation is the process by which an atom
An atom is the smallest unit of ordinary matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday ...
.
Boiling
The boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure
280px, The ''pistol test tube'' experiment. The tube contains alcohol and is closed with a piece of cork. By heating the alcohol, the vapors fill in the space, inc ...
of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure
Vapor pressure (or vapour pressure in British English
British English (BrE) is the standard dialect
A standard language (also standard variety, standard dialect, and standard) is a language variety that has undergone substantial cod ...

of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid resulting in an abrupt change in vapor volume.
In a closed system
A closed system is a physical system
A physical system is a collection of physical objects.
In physics, it is a portion of the physical universe chosen for analysis. Everything outside the system is known as the environment (systems), environm ...
, ''saturation temperature'' and ''boiling point'' mean the same thing. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition.
At standard atmospheric pressure and low temperatures, no boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is increased, local boiling occurs and vapor bubbles nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and collapse. This is ''sub-cooled nucleate boiling'', and is a very efficient heat transfer mechanism. At high bubble generation rates, the bubbles begin to interfere and the heat flux no longer increases rapidly with surface temperature (this is the departure from nucleate boiling, or DNB).
At similar standard atmospheric pressure and high temperatures, the hydrodynamically-quieter regime of is reached. Heat fluxes across the stable vapor layers are low, but rise slowly with temperature. Any contact between fluid and the surface that may be seen probably leads to the extremely rapid nucleation of a fresh vapor layer ("spontaneous nucleation
Nucleation is the first step in the formation of either a new thermodynamic phase or a new structure via self-assembly
File:Iron oxide nanocube.jpg, upright=1.2, Transmission electron microscopy image of an iron oxide nanoparticle. Regularly ar ...

"). At higher temperatures still, a maximum in the heat flux is reached (the critical heat flux
Critical heat flux (CHF) describes the thermal limit of a phenomenon where a phase change occurs during heating (such as bubbles forming on a metal surface used to heat water
Water is an Inorganic compound, inorganic, Transparency and tran ...
, or CHF).
The Leidenfrost Effect
The Leidenfrost effect is a physical phenomenon in which a liquid, close to a surface that is significantly hotter than the liquid's boiling point, produces an insulating vapor
In physics, a vapor (American English
American English (A ...

demonstrates how nucleate boiling slows heat transfer due to gas bubbles on the heater's surface. As mentioned, gas-phase thermal conductivity is much lower than liquid-phase thermal conductivity, so the outcome is a kind of "gas thermal barrier".
Condensation
Condensation
Condensation is the change of the state of matter
In physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spacetime, space ...

occurs when a vapor is cooled and changes its phase to a liquid. During condensation, the latent heat of vaporization
The enthalpy of vaporization (symbol ), also known as the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy
Enthalpy is a property of a thermodynamic system
A thermodynamic system is a body of matter a ...
must be released. The amount of the heat is the same as that absorbed during vaporization at the same fluid pressure.
There are several types of condensation:
* Homogeneous condensation, as during a formation of fog.
* Condensation in direct contact with subcooled liquid.
* Condensation on direct contact with a cooling wall of a heat exchanger: This is the most common mode used in industry:
** Filmwise condensation is when a liquid film is formed on the subcooled surface, and usually occurs when the liquid wets the surface.
** Dropwise condensation is when liquid drops are formed on the subcooled surface, and usually occurs when the liquid does not wet the surface.
:Dropwise condensation is difficult to sustain reliably; therefore, industrial equipment is normally designed to operate in filmwise condensation mode.
Melting
Melting
Melting, or Enthalpy of fusion, fusion, is a physical process that results in the phase transition of a chemical substance, substance from a solid to a liquid. This occurs when the internal energy of the solid increases, typically by the applic ...

is a thermal process that results in the phase transition of a substance from a solid
Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter
4 (four) is a number
A number is a mathematical object
A mathematical object is an abstract concept arising in mathematics.
In the usual language of mathematics, an ''object'' is an ...

to a liquid
A liquid is a nearly incompressible
In fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics
Mechanics (Ancient Greek, Greek: ) is the area of physics concerned with the motions of physical objects, ...

. The internal energy
The internal energy of a thermodynamic system
A thermodynamic system is a body of matter
In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that ca ...
of a substance is increased, typically with heat or pressure, resulting in a rise of its temperature to the melting point
The melting point (or, rarely, liquefaction point) of a substance is the temperature
Temperature ( ) is a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold. It is the manifestation of thermal energy
Thermal radiation in visible light can b ...

, at which the ordering of ionic or molecular entities in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid liquefies. Molten substances generally have reduced viscosity with elevated temperature; an exception to this maxim is the element sulfur
Sulfur (in nontechnical British English: sulphur) is a chemical element
In chemistry
Chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of . It is a that covers the that make up matter to the composed of s, s and s: th ...

, whose viscosity increases to a point due to polymerization
In polymer chemistry, polymerization (American English), or polymerisation (British English), is a process of reacting monomer, monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to form polymer chains or three-dimensional networks.Clayden, J ...
and then decreases with higher temperatures in its molten state.
Modeling approaches
Heat transfer can be modeled in various ways.
Heat equation
The heat equation
In mathematics
Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as numbers (arithmetic and number theory), formulas and related structures (algebra), shapes and spaces in which they are contained (geometry), and quantities and ...
is an important partial differential equation
In mathematics
Mathematics (from Ancient Greek, Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), mathematical structure, structure (algebra), space (geometry), and calculus, change (mathematical analysis, analysis). I ...
that describes the distribution of heat (or variation in temperature) in a given region over time. In some cases, exact solutions of the equation are available; in other cases the equation must be solved numerically using computational methods such as DEM-based models for thermal/reacting particulate systems (as critically reviewed by Peng et al.).
Lumped system analysis
Lumped system analysis often reduces the complexity of the equations to one first-order linear differential equation, in which case heating and cooling are described by a simple exponential solution, often referred to as Newton's law of cooling
Newton's law of cooling states that ''the rate of heat
In thermodynamics, heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by mechanisms other than thermodynamic work or transfer of matter. The various mechanisms of energy tr ...
.
System analysis by the lumped capacitance model is a common approximation in transient conduction that may be used whenever heat conduction within an object is much faster than heat conduction across the boundary of the object. This is a method of approximation that reduces one aspect of the transient conduction system—that within the object—to an equivalent steady state system. That is, the method assumes that the temperature within the object is completely uniform, although its value may be changing in time.
In this method, the ratio of the conductive heat resistance within the object to the convective heat transfer resistance across the object's boundary, known as the ''Biot number'', is calculated. For small Biot numbers, the approximation of ''spatially uniform temperature within the object'' can be used: it can be presumed that heat transferred into the object has time to uniformly distribute itself, due to the lower resistance to doing so, as compared with the resistance to heat entering the object.
Climate models
Climate models study the Thermal radiation, radiant heat transfer by using quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice.
Engineering
Heat transfer has broad application to the functioning of numerous devices and systems. Heat-transfer principles may be used to preserve, increase, or decrease temperature in a wide variety of circumstances. Heat transfer methods are used in numerous disciplines, such as automotive engineering, thermal management of electronic devices and systems, HVAC, climate control, thermal insulation, insulation, process (engineering), materials processing, chemical engineering and power station engineering.
Insulation, radiance and resistance
Thermal insulation, Thermal insulators are materials specifically designed to reduce the flow of heat by limiting conduction, convection, or both. Thermal resistance is a heat property and the measurement by which an object or material resists to heat flow (heat per time unit or thermal resistance) to temperature difference.
Radiance or spectral radiance are measures of the quantity of radiation that passes through or is emitted. Radiant barriers are materials that Reflection (physics), reflect radiation, and therefore reduce the flow of heat from radiation sources. Good insulators are not necessarily good radiant barriers, and vice versa. Metal, for instance, is an excellent reflector and a poor insulator.
The effectiveness of a radiant barrier is indicated by its reflectivity, which is the fraction of radiation reflected. A material with a high reflectivity (at a given wavelength) has a low emissivity (at that same wavelength), and vice versa. At any specific wavelength, reflectivity=1 - emissivity. An ideal radiant barrier would have a reflectivity of 1, and would therefore reflect 100 percent of incoming radiation. Vacuum flasks, or Dewars, are silvered to approach this ideal. In the vacuum of space, satellites use multi-layer insulation, which consists of many layers of aluminized (shiny) Mylar to greatly reduce radiation heat transfer and control satellite temperature.
Devices
A heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of a flow of thermal energy
Thermal radiation in visible light can be seen on this hot metalwork.
Thermal energy refers to several distinct physical concepts, such as the internal energy of a system; heat or sensible heat, which are defined as types of energy transfer (as is ...
(heat) to mechanical energy to perform mechanical work.
A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device and widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control, and can also be used to convert heat into electric power.
A thermoelectric cooler is a solid state electronic device that pumps (transfers) heat from one side of the device to the other when electric current is passed through it. It is based on the Peltier effect.
A thermal diode or thermal rectifier is a device that causes heat to flow preferentially in one direction.
Heat exchangers
A heat exchanger is used for more efficient heat transfer or to dissipate heat. Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration, air conditioning, space heating, power generation, and chemical processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is a car's radiator, in which the hot coolant, coolant fluid is cooled by the flow of air over the radiator's surface.
Common types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow, counter flow, and cross flow. In parallel flow, both fluids move in the same direction while transferring heat; in counter flow, the fluids move in opposite directions; and in cross flow, the fluids move at right angles to each other. Common types of heat exchangers include Shell and tube heat exchanger, shell and tube, Heat exchanger#Double pipe heat exchanger, double pipe, extruded finned pipe, spiral fin pipe, u-tube, and stacked plate. Each type has certain advantages and disadvantages over other types.
A heat sink is a component that transfers heat generated within a solid material to a fluid medium, such as air or a liquid. Examples of heat sinks are the heat exchangers used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems or the radiator in a car. A heat pipe is another heat-transfer device that combines thermal conductivity and phase transition to efficiently transfer heat between two solid interfaces.
Applications
Architecture
Efficient energy use is the goal to reduce the amount of energy required in heating or cooling. In architecture, condensation and air currents can cause cosmetic or structural damage. An energy audit can help to assess the implementation of recommended corrective procedures. For instance, insulation improvements, air sealing of structural leaks or the addition of energy-efficient windows and doors.
* Smart meter is a device that records electric energy consumption in intervals.
* Thermal transmittance is the rate of transfer of heat through a structure divided by the difference in temperature across the structure. It is expressed in watts per square meter per kelvin, or W/(m2K). Well-insulated parts of a building have a low thermal transmittance, whereas poorly-insulated parts of a building have a high thermal transmittance.
* Thermostat is a device to monitor and control temperature.
Climate engineering
Climate engineering consists of carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Since the amount of carbon dioxide determines the radiative balance of Earth atmosphere, carbon dioxide removal techniques can be applied to reduce the radiative forcing. Solar radiation management is the attempt to absorb less solar radiation to offset the effects of greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases.
Heat transfer in the human body
The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can be applied to the human body in order to determine how the body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by the continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides energy for the systems of the body. The human body must maintain a consistent internal temperature in order to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess heat must be dissipated from the body to keep it from overheating. When a person engages in elevated levels of physical activity, the body requires additional fuel which increases the metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The body must then use additional methods to remove the additional heat produced in order to keep the internal temperature at a healthy level.
Convection (heat transfer), Heat transfer by convection is driven by the movement of fluids over the surface of the body. This convective fluid can be either a liquid or a gas. For heat transfer from the outer surface of the body, the convection mechanism is dependent on the surface area of the body, the velocity of the air, and the temperature gradient between the surface of the skin and the ambient air.[Cengel, Yunus A. and Ghajar, Afshin J. "Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications", McGraw-Hill, 4th Edition, 2010.] The normal temperature of the body is approximately 37 °C. Heat transfer occurs more readily when the temperature of the surroundings is significantly less than the normal body temperature. This concept explains why a person feels cold when not enough covering is worn when exposed to a cold environment. Clothing can be considered an insulator which provides thermal resistance to heat flow over the covered portion of the body. This thermal resistance causes the temperature on the surface of the clothing to be less than the temperature on the surface of the skin. This smaller temperature gradient between the surface temperature and the ambient temperature will cause a lower rate of heat transfer than if the skin were not covered.
In order to ensure that one portion of the body is not significantly hotter than another portion, heat must be distributed evenly through the bodily tissues. Blood flowing through blood vessels acts as a convective fluid and helps to prevent any buildup of excess heat inside the tissues of the body. This flow of blood through the vessels can be modeled as pipe flow in an engineering system. The heat carried by the blood is determined by the temperature of the surrounding tissue, the diameter of the blood vessel, the Viscosity, thickness of the fluid, velocity of the flow, and the heat transfer coefficient of the blood. The velocity, blood vessel diameter, and the fluid thickness can all be related with the Reynolds Number, a dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to characterize the flow of fluids.
Latent heat loss, also known as evaporative heat loss, accounts for a large fraction of heat loss from the body. When the core temperature of the body increases, the body triggers sweat glands in the skin to bring additional moisture to the surface of the skin. The liquid is then transformed into vapor which removes heat from the surface of the body. The rate of evaporation heat loss is directly related to the vapor pressure
Vapor pressure (or vapour pressure in British English
British English (BrE) is the standard dialect
A standard language (also standard variety, standard dialect, and standard) is a language variety that has undergone substantial cod ...

at the skin surface and the amount of moisture present on the skin. Therefore, the maximum of heat transfer will occur when the skin is completely wet. The body continuously loses water by evaporation but the most significant amount of heat loss occurs during periods of increased physical activity.
Cooling techniques
Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling happens when water vapor is added to the surrounding air. The energy needed to evaporate the water is taken from the air in the form of sensible heat and converted into latent heat, while the air remains at a constant enthalpy. Latent heat describes the amount of heat that is needed to evaporate the liquid; this heat comes from the liquid itself and the surrounding gas and surfaces. The greater the difference between the two temperatures, the greater the evaporative cooling effect. When the temperatures are the same, no net evaporation of water in air occurs; thus, there is no cooling effect.
Laser cooling
In quantum physics, laser cooling is used to achieve temperatures of near absolute zero
Absolute zero is the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature
Thermodynamic temperature is the measure of ''absolute temperature'' and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics. A thermodynamic temperature reading of zero deno ...
(−273.15 °C, −459.67 °F) of atomic and molecular samples to observe unique quantum effects that can only occur at this heat level.
* Doppler cooling is the most common method of laser cooling.
* Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles of one type cool particles of another type. Typically, atomic ions that can be directly laser-cooled are used to cool nearby ions or atoms. This technique allows cooling of ions and atoms that cannot be laser cooled directly.
Magnetic cooling
Magnetic evaporative cooling is a process for lowering the temperature of a group of atoms, after pre-cooled by methods such as laser cooling. Magnetic refrigeration cools below 0.3K, by making use of the Magnetic refrigeration#The magnetocaloric effect, magnetocaloric effect.
Radiative cooling
Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation. Earth's energy budget#Outgoing energy, Outgoing energy is an important effect in the Earth's energy budget#Outgoing energy, Earth's energy budget. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. The thermosphere (top of atmosphere) cools to space primarily by infrared energy radiated by carbon dioxide (CO2) at 15 μm and by nitric oxide (NO) at 5.3 μm.[The global infrared energy budget of the thermosphere from 1947 to 2016 and implications for solar variability
Martin G. Mlynczak Linda A. Hunt James M. Russell III B. Thomas Marshall Christopher J. Mertens R. Earl Thompson https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016GL070965] Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere.
Thermal energy storage
Thermal energy storage includes technologies for collecting and Energy storage, storing energy for later use. It may be employed to balance energy demand between day and nighttime. The thermal reservoir may be maintained at a temperature above or below that of the ambient environment. Applications include space heating, domestic or process hot water systems, or generating electricity.
See also
*Combined forced and natural convection
*Heat capacity
*Heat transfer physics
*Stefan–Boltzmann law
*Thermal contact conductanceIn physics
Physics (from grc, φυσική (ἐπιστήμη), physikḗ (epistḗmē), knowledge of nature, from ''phýsis'' 'nature'), , is the natural science that studies matter, its Motion (physics), motion and behavior through Spac ...
*Thermal physics
*Thermal resistance in electronics
*Heat transfer enhancement
References
External links
A Heat Transfer Textbook
- (free download).
Thermal-FluidsPedia
- An online thermal fluids encyclopedia.
- Overview
- a practical example of how heat transfer is used to heat buildings without burning fossil fuels.
Thermal-Fluids Central
Energy2D: Interactive Heat Transfer Simulations for Everyone
{{DEFAULTSORT:Heat Transfer
Heat transfer,
Chemical engineering
Mechanical engineering
Unit operations
Transport phenomena