HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in
Yiddish Yiddish (, or , ''yidish'' or ''idish'', , ; , ''Yidish-Taytsh'', ) is a West Germanic language historically spoken by Ashkenazi Jews. It originated during the 9th century in Central Europe, providing the nascent Ashkenazi community with a ve ...
Gemo(r)re; from Aramaic , from the
Semitic root The roots of verbs and most nouns in the Semitic languages are characterized as a sequence of consonants or "radicals" (hence the term consonantal root). Such abstract consonantal roots are used in the formation of actual words by adding the vowels ...
ג-מ-ר ''gamar'', to finish or complete) is the component of the
Talmud The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the
Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
written in 63 books. At first, Gemara was only transmitted orally and was forbidden to be written down, however after the Mishnah was published by Judah the Prince (c. 200 CE), the work was studied exhaustively by generation after generation of rabbis in
Babylonia Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state c ...
and the
Land of Israel The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine (see also Isr ...
. Their discussions were written down in a series of books that became the Gemara, which when combined with the Mishnah constituted the Talmud. There are two versions of the Gemara. The
Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
(Talmud Yerushalmi), also known as the Palestinian Talmud, was compiled by Jewish scholars of the Land of Israel, primarily of the academies of
Tiberias Tiberias ( ; he, טְבֶרְיָה, ; ar, طبريا, Ṭabariyyā) is an Israeli city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's F ...
and
Caesarea Caesarea () ( he, קֵיסָרְיָה, ), ''Keysariya'' or ''Qesarya'', often simplified to Keisarya, and Qaysaria, is an affluent town in north-central Israel, which inherits its name and much of its territory from the ancient city of Caesar ...
, and was published between about 350–400 CE. The Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) was published about 500 CE by scholars of Babylonia, primarily of the academies of
Sura A ''surah'' (; ar, سورة, sūrah, , ), is the equivalent of "chapter" in the Qur'an. There are 114 ''surahs'' in the Quran, each divided into '' ayats'' (verses). The chapters or ''surahs'' are of unequal length; the shortest surah ('' Al-K ...
,
Pumbedita Pumbedita (sometimes Pumbeditha, Pumpedita, or Pumbedisa; arc, פוּמְבְּדִיתָא ''Pūmbəḏīṯāʾ'', "The Mouth of the River,") was an ancient city located near the modern-day city of Fallujah, Iraq. It is known for having hosted t ...
, and Nehardea. By convention, a reference to the "Gemara" or "Talmud," without further qualification, refers to the Babylonian version. The main compilers were Ravina and Rav Ashi. There are six groups of Gemara, namely Zeraim, Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodshim and Taharot. There is a custom made in 1923 by Polish rabbi Meir Shapiro, who saw that there were parts of the Gemara that would never get read, so he started an initiative called Daf Yomi, where people learn a page of Gemara every day for seven years in order that the entire Gemara would be learned.


Gemara and Mishnah

The Gemara and the Mishnah together make up the
Talmud The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
. The Talmud thus comprises two components: the Mishnah – the core text; and the Gemara – analysis and commentary which "completes" the Talmud (see Structure of the Talmud).
Maimonides Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
describes the Gemara component as: The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as ''
Tannaim ''Tannaim'' ( Amoraic Hebrew: תנאים , singular , ''Tanna'' "repeaters", "teachers") were the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 10–220 CE. The period of the ''Tannaim'', also referred to as the Mis ...
'' (sing. ''Tanna'' ). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to as ''
Amoraim ''Amoraim'' (Aramaic: plural or , singular ''Amora'' or ''Amoray''; "those who say" or "those who speak over the people", or "spokesmen") refers to Jewish scholars of the period from about 200 to 500 CE, who "said" or "told over" the teachi ...
'' (sing. ''Amora'' אמורא). The analysis of the Amoraim, recorded as ''gemara'', is thus focused on clarifying the positions, views, and word choice of the Tannaim. Because there are two Gemaras, as mentioned above, there are in fact two Talmuds: the
Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
(Hebrew: , "Talmud Yerushalmi"), and the
Babylonian Talmud The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cent ...
(Hebrew: , "Talmud Bavli"), corresponding to the Jerusalem Gemara and the Babylonian Gemara; both share the same Mishnah. The Gemara is mostly written in
Aramaic The Aramaic languages, short Aramaic ( syc, ܐܪܡܝܐ, Arāmāyā; oar, 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; arc, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; tmr, אֲרָמִית), are a language family containing many varieties (languages and dialects) that originated i ...
, the Jerusalem Gemara in Western Aramaic and the Babylonian in Eastern Aramaic, but both contain portions in
Hebrew Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
. Sometimes the language changes in the middle of a story.


Origins of the word

In a narrow sense, the word refers to the mastery and transmission of existing tradition, as opposed to , which means the deriving of new results by logic. Both activities are represented in the as one literary work. The term for the activity of study is far older than its use as a description of any text: thus Pirke Avot
Ch.5
, a work long preceding the recording of the Talmud, recommends starting at the age of 10 and , meaning the Gemara, at the age of 15.


The ''Sugya''

The analysis of the ''Amoraim'' is generally focused on clarifying the positions, words and views of the ''Tannaim''. These debates and exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the ; the name for such a passage of Gemara is a (; plural ). A will typically comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of the . Every aspect of the text is treated as a subject of close investigation. This analysis is aimed at an exhaustive understanding of the full meaning. In the Talmud, a is presented as a series of responsive
hypotheses A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous obse ...
and questions – with the Talmudic text as a record of each step in the process of reasoning and derivation. The thus takes the form of a dialectical exchange (by contrast, the states concluded legal opinions – and often differences in opinion between the ''Tannaim''. There is little dialogue). The disputants here are termed the (questioner, "one who raises a difficulty") and (answerer, "one who puts straight"). The records the semantic disagreements between ''Tannaim'' and ''Amoraim''. Some of these debates were actually conducted by the ''Amoraim'', though many of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors. (Often imputing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question: "This is what Rabbi X could have argued ...") Only rarely are debates formally closed.


Argumentation and debate

The distinctive character of the derives largely from the intricate use of argumentation and debate, described above; these "back and forth" analytics are characterized by the Talmudic phrase ''shakla v'tarya'' (שקלא וטריא; lit "taking and throwing"). In each , either participant may cite scriptural, and proof to build a logical support for their respective opinions. The process of deduction required to derive a conclusion from a prooftext is often logically complex and indirect. "Confronted with a statement on any subject, the Talmudic student will proceed to raise a series of questions before he satisfies himself of having understood its full meaning." This analysis has been described as "mathematical" in approach; Adin Steinsaltz makes the analogy of the ''Amoraim'' as
scientist A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of the natural sciences. In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosop ...
s investigating the
Halakha ''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws which is derived from the written and Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical commandm ...
, where the
Tanakh The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
, Tosefta and
midrash ''Midrash'' (;"midrash"
''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''.
he, מִדְרָשׁ; ...
are the
phenomena A phenomenon ( : phenomena) is an observable event. The term came into its modern philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon, which ''cannot'' be directly observed. Kant was heavily influenced by Gottfried ...
studied.


Prooftexts

Prooftexts quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions and theories will include: * verses from the Tanakh: the exact language employed is regarded as significant; * other : cross-references to analogous cases, or to parallel reasoning by the in question; * '' Beraitot'' (ברייתות) – uncodified which are also sources of halakha (lit. outside material; sing. ברייתא); ** references to opinions and cases in the (תוספתא); ** references to the (); * cross-references to other : again to analogous cases or logic.


Questions addressed

The actual debate will usually centre on the following categories:


Language

Why does the use one word rather than another? If a statement is not clear enough, the seeks to clarify the intention.


Logic

Exploring the logical principles underlying the statements, and showing how different understandings of the reasons could lead to differences in their practical application. What underlying principle is entailed in a statement of fact or in a specific instance brought as an illustration? If a statement appears obvious, the seeks the logical reason for its necessity. It seeks to answer under which circumstances a statement is true, and what qualifications are permissible. All statements are examined for internal consistency. See:
List of Talmudic principles The Talmud uses many types of logical arguments. Some of the most common arguments and terms are discussed here. Chazakah (presumption) The term ''chazakah'' ( he, חזקה) usually refers to the default assumption; i.e. what is assumed until th ...
and :Talmud concepts and terminology


Legal

Resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in the , or between the and other traditions; e.g., by stating that: two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or that they represent the views of different rabbis. Do certain authorities differ or not? If they do, why do they differ? If a principle is presented as a generalization, the clarifies how much is included; if an exception, how much is excluded.


Biblical exposition

Demonstrating how the rulings or disputes derive from interpretations of Biblical texts, the will often ask where in the
Torah The Torah (; hbo, ''Tōrā'', "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. In that sense, Torah means the ...
the derives a particular law. See Talmudic hermeneutics and Oral Torah #The interplay of the Oral and Written Law.


See also

* * Hadran (Talmud) * List of masechtot, chapters, mishnahs and pages in the Talmud *
Oral Torah According to Rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah or Oral Law ( he, , Tōrā šebbəʿal-pe}) are those purported laws, statutes, and legal interpretations that were not recorded in the Five Books of Moses, the Written Torah ( he, , Tōrā šebbī� ...
* * * * Rabbinic works elaborating the analytical methods employed in : ** - R. Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller ** and - R.
Moshe Chaim Luzzatto Moshe Chaim Luzzatto ( he, משה חיים לוצאטו, also ''Moses Chaim'', ''Moses Hayyim'', also ''Luzzato'') (1707 – 16 May 1746 (26 ''Iyar'' 5506)), also known by the Hebrew acronym RaMCHaL (or RaMHaL, ), was a prominent Itali ...
*
''Mevo haTalmud''
- Shmuel HaNagid


Further reading

*
Gemara
, ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' *

, Prof. Eliezer Segal * "
Maimonides Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
introduction to the
Mishneh Torah The ''Mishneh Torah'' ( he, מִשְׁנֵה תּוֹרָה, , repetition of the Torah), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' ( he, ספר יד החזקה, , book of the strong hand, label=none), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law ('' ...

English translation
*

,
Samuel ha-Nagid Samuel ibn Naghrillah (, ''Sh'muel HaLevi ben Yosef HaNagid''; ''ʾAbū ʾIsḥāq ʾIsmāʿīl bin an-Naghrīlah''), also known as Samuel HaNagid (, ''Shmuel HaNagid'', lit. ''Samuel the Prince'') and Isma’il ibn Naghrilla (born 993; died 1056 ...
*
Talmudic Method
, Harry Austryn Wolfson * ''The Essential Talmud: Thirtieth Anniversary Edition'', Adin Steinsaltz (Basic Books, 2006). Read mor
here
. See als
here
. * ''The Talmud: A Reference Guide'', Adin Steinsaltz (Random House, 1996). Read mor
here
. * ''Introduction to The Talmud and Midrash'', H.L. Strack and G. Stemberger (Fortress Press, 1992). * ''The Infinite Chain: Torah, Masorah, and Man'', Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo (Targum Press Distributed by Philipp Feldheim, 1989).


References


External links




Gemara Marking System: Keys to Structure

Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week

The Complete Babylonian Talmud
(Aramaic/Hebrew) as scanned images of the pages.
The Complete Babylonian Talmud
(Aramaic/Hebrew) as text. (Also available fro


A printable chart with listings of all Dappim from each Mesechta

Gemara Brochos:"Shema, Tefillah and Brochos"

Daily Gemara by Rabbi Eli Mansour
* {{Authority control Gemara Aramaic words and phrases Oral Torah Aramaic words and phrases in Jewish prayers and blessings Sifrei Kodesh