An embryo is an initial stage of development of a
multicellular organism. In
organism
In biology, an organism () is any living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells ( cell theory). Organisms are classified by taxonomy into groups such as multicellular animals, plants, and fu ...
s that
reproduce sexually,
embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after
fertilization
Fertilisation or fertilization (see spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to give rise to a new individual organism or offspring and initiate its development. Pro ...
of the female
egg cell by the male
sperm cell. The resulting fusion of these two cells produces a single-celled
zygote
A zygote (, ) is a eukaryotic cell formed by a fertilization event between two gametes. The zygote's genome is a combination of the DNA in each gamete, and contains all of the genetic information of a new individual organism.
In multicell ...
that undergoes many
cell divisions
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle in which the cell grows and replicates its chromosome(s) before dividing. In eukaryotes, there are ...
that produce
cells
Cell most often refers to:
* Cell (biology), the functional basic unit of life
Cell may also refer to:
Locations
* Monastic cell, a small room, hut, or cave in which a religious recluse lives, alternatively the small precursor of a monastery w ...
known as
blastomeres. The blastomeres are arranged as a solid ball that when reaching a certain size, called a
morula, takes in fluid to
create a cavity called a
blastocoel
The blastocoel (), also spelled blastocoele and blastocele, and also called cleavage cavity, or segmentation cavity is a fluid-filled or yolk-filled cavity that forms in the blastula during very early embryonic development. At this stage in mammal ...
. The structure is then termed a
blastula
Blastulation is the stage in early animal embryonic development that produces the blastula. In mammalian development the blastula develops into the blastocyst with a differentiated inner cell mass and an outer trophectoderm. The blastula (fro ...
, or a
blastocyst in
mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur ...
s.
The mammalian blastocyst
hatches before
implantating into the
endometrial lining of the
womb. Once implanted the embryo will continue its development through the next stages of
gastrulation,
neurulation, and
organogenesis. Gastrulation is the formation of the three
germ layers that will form all of the different parts of the body. Neurulation forms the
nervous system
In biology, the nervous system is the highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes ...
, and organogenesis is the development of all the various tissues and organs of the body.
A
newly developing human is typically referred to as an embryo until the ninth week after conception, when it is then referred to as a
fetus
A fetus or foetus (; plural fetuses, feti, foetuses, or foeti) is the unborn offspring that develops from an animal embryo. Following embryonic development the fetal stage of development takes place. In human prenatal development, fetal dev ...
. In other multicellular organisms, the word "embryo" can be used more broadly to any early developmental or life cycle stage prior to
birth or
hatching.
Etymology
First attested in English in the mid-14c., the word ''embryon'' derives from
Medieval Latin
Medieval Latin was the form of Literary Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned ...
''embryo'', itself from
Greek (''embruon''), lit. "young one", which is the neuter of (''embruos''), lit. "growing in", from ἐν (''en''), "in" and βρύω (''bruō''), "swell, be full"; the proper
Latinized form of the Greek term would be ''embryum''.
Development
Animal embryos
In animals, fertilization begins the process of
embryonic development with the creation of a zygote, a single cell resulting from the fusion of gametes (e.g. egg and sperm). The development of a zygote into a multicellular embryo proceeds through a series of recognizable stages, often divided into cleavage, blastula, gastrulation, and organogenesis.
Cleavage is the period of rapid mitotic cell divisions that occur after fertilization. During cleavage, the overall size of the embryo does not change, but the size of individual cells decrease rapidly as they divide to increase the total number of cells. Cleavage results in a blastula.
Depending on the species, a blastula or
blastocyst stage embryo can appear as a ball of cells on top of yolk, or as a hollow sphere of cells surrounding a
middle cavity.
The embryo's cells continue to divide and increase in number, while molecules within the cells such as RNAs and proteins actively promote key developmental processes such as gene expression, cell fate specification, and polarity. Before
implanting into the uterine wall the embryo is sometimes known as the ''pre-implantation embryo'' or ''pre-implantation conceptus''.
Sometimes this is called the pre-embryo a term employed to differentiate from an embryo proper in relation to embryonic stem cell discourses.
Gastrulation is the next phase of embryonic development, and involves the development of two or more layers of cells (germinal layers). Animals that form two layers (such as
Cnidaria
Cnidaria () is a phylum under kingdom Animalia containing over 11,000 species of aquatic animals found both in freshwater and marine environments, predominantly the latter.
Their distinguishing feature is cnidocytes, specialized cells that ...
) are called diploblastic, and those that form three (most other animals, from
flatworms to humans) are called triploblastic. During gastrulation of triploblastic animals, the three germinal layers that form are called the
ectoderm,
mesoderm, and
endoderm.
All tissues and organs of a mature animal can trace their origin back to one of these layers. For example, the ectoderm will give rise to the skin epidermis and the nervous system, the mesoderm will give rise to the vascular system, muscles, bone, and connective tissues, and the endoderm will give rise to organs of the digestive system and epithelium of the digestive system and respiratory system. Many visible changes in embryonic structure happen throughout gastrulation as the cells that make up the different germ layers migrate and cause the previously round embryo to fold or invaginate into a cup-like appearance.
Past gastrulation, an embryo continues to develop into a mature multicellular organism by forming structures necessary for life outside of the womb or egg. As the name suggests, organogenesis is the stage of embryonic development when organs form. During organogenesis, molecular and cellular interactions prompt certain populations of cells from the different germ layers to differentiate into organ-specific cell types. For example, in neurogenesis, a subpopulation of cells from the ectoderm segregate from other cells and further specialize to become the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral nerves.
The embryonic period varies from species to species. In human development, the term fetus is used instead of embryo after the ninth week after conception, whereas in
zebrafish, embryonic development is considered finished when a bone called the
cleithrum becomes visible. In animals that hatch from an egg, such as birds, a young animal is typically no longer referred to as an embryo once it has hatched. In
viviparous
Among animals, viviparity is development of the embryo inside the body of the parent. This is opposed to oviparity which is a reproductive mode in which females lay developing eggs that complete their development and hatch externally from the ...
animals (animals whose offspring spend at least some time developing within a parent's body), the offspring is typically referred to as an embryo while inside of the parent, and is no longer considered an embryo after birth or exit from the parent. However, the extent of development and growth accomplished while inside of an egg or parent varies significantly from species to species, so much so that the processes that take place after hatching or birth in one species may take place well before those events in another. Therefore, according to one textbook, it is common for scientists interpret the scope of
embryology
Embryology (from Greek ἔμβρυον, ''embryon'', "the unborn, embryo"; and -λογία, '' -logia'') is the branch of animal biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embr ...
broadly as the study of the development of animals.
Plant embryos
Flowering plants (
angiosperms
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants ...
) create embryos after the fertilization of a haploid
ovule
In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells. It consists of three parts: the '' integument'', forming its outer layer, the ''nucellus'' (or remnant of the megasporangium), and the ...
by
pollen. The DNA from the ovule and pollen combine to form a diploid, single-cell zygote that will develop into an embryo. The zygote, which will divide multiple times as it progresses throughout embryonic development, is one part of a
seed
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosper ...
. Other seed components include the
endosperm, which is tissue rich in nutrients that will help support the growing plant embryo, and the seed coat, which is a protective outer covering. The first cell division of a zygote is
asymmetric, resulting in an embryo with one small cell (the apical cell) and one large cell (the basal cell).
The small, apical cell will eventually give rise to most of the structures of the mature plant, such as the stem, leaves, and roots. The larger basal cell will give rise to the suspensor, which connects the embryo to the endosperm so that nutrients can pass between them.
The plant embryo cells continue to divide and progress through developmental stages named for their general appearance: globular, heart, and torpedo. In the globular stage, three basic tissue types (dermal, ground, and vascular) can be recognized.
The dermal tissue will give rise to the
epidermis or outer covering of a plant, ground tissue will give rise to inner plant material that functions in
photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that, through cellular respiration, can later be released to fuel the organism's activities. Some of this chemical energy is stored in ...
, resource storage, and physical support, and vascular tissue will give rise to connective tissue like the
xylem and
phloem that transport fluid, nutrients, and minerals throughout the plant. In heart stage, one or two
cotyledon
A cotyledon (; ; ; , gen. (), ) is a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant, and is defined as "the embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants, one or more of which are the first to appear from a germinating seed." The numb ...
s (embryonic leaves) will form.
Meristems (centers of
stem cell
In multicellular organisms, stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. They are the earliest type of ...
activity) develop during the torpedo stage, and will eventually produce many of the mature tissues of the adult plant throughout its life.
At the end of embryonic growth, the seed will usually go dormant until germination. Once the embryo begins to
germinate (grow out from the seed) and forms its first true leaf, it is called a
seedling
A seedling is a young sporophyte developing out of a plant embryo from a seed. Seedling development starts with germination of the seed. A typical young seedling consists of three main parts: the radicle (embryonic root), the hypocotyl (emb ...
or plantlet.
Plants that produce
spores instead of seeds, like
bryophytes and
fern
A fern (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta ) is a member of a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. The polypodiophytes include all living pteridophytes exce ...
s, also produce embryos. In these plants, the embryo begins its existence attached to the inside of the
archegonium on a parental
gametophyte
A gametophyte () is one of the two alternating multicellular phases in the life cycles of plants and algae. It is a haploid multicellular organism that develops from a haploid spore that has one set of chromosomes. The gametophyte is the ...
from which the egg cell was generated. The inner wall of the archegonium lies in close contact with the "foot" of the developing embryo; this "foot" consists of a bulbous mass of cells at the base of the embryo which may receive nutrition from its parent gametophyte. The structure and development of the rest of the embryo varies by group of plants.
Since all land plants create embryos, they are collectively referred to as
embryophyte
The Embryophyta (), or land plants, are the most familiar group of green plants that comprise vegetation on Earth. Embryophytes () have a common ancestor with green algae, having emerged within the Phragmoplastophyta clade of green algae as sis ...
s (or by their scientific name, Embryophyta). This, along with other characteristics, distinguishes land plants from other types of plants, such as
algae, which do not produce embryos.
Research and technology
Biological processes
Embryos from numerous plant and animal species are studied in biological research laboratories across the world to learn about topics such as
stem cell
In multicellular organisms, stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. They are the earliest type of ...
s,
evolution and development,
cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle in which the cell grows and replicates its chromosome(s) before dividing. In eukaryotes, there ...
, and
gene expression. Examples of scientific discoveries made while studying embryos that were awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded yearly by the Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute for outstanding discoveries in physiology or medicine. The Nobel Prize is not a single prize, but five separate prizes that, accordi ...
include the
Spemann-Mangold organizer The Spemann-Mangold organizer is a group of cells that are responsible for the induction of the neural tissues during development in amphibian embryos. First described in 1924 by Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold, the introduction of the organizer pro ...
, a group of cells originally discovered in amphibian embryos that give rise to neural tissues, and genes that give rise to
body segments discovered in ''
Drosophila
''Drosophila'' () is a genus of flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "small fruit flies" or (less frequently) pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many speci ...
'' fly embryos by
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and
Eric Wieschaus.
Assisted reproductive technology
Creating and/or manipulating embryos via
assisted reproductive technology (ART) is used for addressing fertility concerns in humans and other animals, and for
selective breeding
Selective breeding (also called artificial selection) is the process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits (characteristics) by choosing which typically animal or plant ...
in agricultural species. Between the years 1987 and 2015, ART techniques including
in vitro fertilization (IVF) were responsible for an estimated 1 million human births in the United States alone. Other clinical technologies include
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), which can identify certain serious genetic abnormalities, such as
aneuploidy
Aneuploidy is the presence of an abnormal number of chromosomes in a cell, for example a human cell having 45 or 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46. It does not include a difference of one or more complete sets of chromosomes. A cell with an ...
, prior to selecting embryos for use in IVF. Some have proposed (or even attempted - see
He Jiankui affair)
genetic editing
Genetic editing (French ''critique génétique''; German ''genetische Kritik'') is an approach to scholarly editing in which an exemplar is seen as derived from a dossier of other manuscripts and events. The derivation can be through physical cut ...
of human embryos via
CRISPR-Cas9
Cas9 (CRISPR associated protein 9, formerly called Cas5, Csn1, or Csx12) is a 160 kilodalton protein which plays a vital role in the immunological defense of certain bacteria against DNA viruses and plasmids, and is heavily utilized in genetic ...
as a potential avenue for preventing disease; however, this has been met with widespread condemnation from the scientific community.
ART techniques are also used to improve the profitability of agricultural animal species such as cows and pigs by enabling selective breeding for desired traits and/or to increase numbers of offspring. For example, when allowed to breed naturally, cows typically produce one calf per year, whereas IVF increases offspring yield to 9-12 calves per year. IVF and other ART techniques, including
cloning via interspecies somatic cell nuclear transfer (iSCNT), are also used in attempts to increase the numbers of endangered or vulnerable species, such as
Northern white rhinos,
cheetahs, and
sturgeons.
Cryoconservation of plant and animal biodiversity
Cryoconservation of genetic resources involves collecting and storing the reproductive materials, such as embryos, seeds, or gametes, from animal or plant species at low temperatures in order to preserve them for future use. Some large-scale animal species cryoconservation efforts include "
frozen zoos" in various places around the world, including in the UK's
Frozen Ark, the Breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife (BCEAW) in the United Arab Emirates, and the
San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation in the United States. As of 2018, there were approximately 1,700 seed banks used to store and protect plant biodiversity, particularly in the event of mass extinction or other global emergencies. The
Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway maintains the largest collection of plant reproductive tissue, with more than a million samples stored at .
Fossilized embryos
Fossilized animal embryos are known from the
Precambrian, and are found in great numbers during the
Cambrian
The Cambrian Period ( ; sometimes symbolized Ꞓ) was the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era, and of the Phanerozoic Eon. The Cambrian lasted 53.4 million years from the end of the preceding Ediacaran Period 538.8 million years ago ...
period. Even fossilized
dinosaur
Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria. They first appeared during the Triassic period, between 243 and 233.23 million years ago (mya), although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is t ...
embryos have been discovered.
See also
*
Embryo loss
*
Pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops ( gestates) inside a woman's uterus (womb). A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Pregnancy usually occurs by sexual intercourse, but ...
*
Prenatal development
*
In vitro fertilisation
In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a process of fertilisation where an egg is combined with sperm in vitro ("in glass"). The process involves monitoring and stimulating an individual's ovulatory process, removing an ovum or ova (egg or eggs) ...
*
Pre-embryo
*
Miscarriage
*
Abortion
Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion"; these occur in approximately 30% to 40% of pre ...
Notes
External links
UNSW Embryology - Educational websiteA Comparative Embryology Gallery
{{Authority control
Developmental biology
Bioethics
Fertility medicine
Articles containing video clips