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Dynasties in Chinese history, or Chinese dynasties, were hereditary monarchical regimes that ruled over China during much of its history. From the legendary inauguration of dynastic rule by
Yu the Great Yu the Great (大禹) was a legendary king in ancient China who was famed for his introduction of flood control, his establishment of the Xia dynasty which inaugurated dynastic rule in China, and his upright moral character. He figures promine ...
circa 2070 BC to the abdication of the
Xuantong Emperor Aisin-Gioro Puyi (; 7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967), courtesy name Yaozhi (曜之), was the last emperor of China as the eleventh and final Qing dynasty monarch. He became emperor at the age of two in 1908, but was forced to abdicate on 1 ...
on 12 February 1912 in the wake of the
Xinhai Revolution The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, ended China's last imperial dynasty, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and led to the establishment of the Republic of China. The revolution was the culmination of ...
, China was ruled by a series of successive dynasties. Dynasties of China were not limited to those established by ethnic Han—the dominant Chinese ethnic group—and its predecessor, the
Huaxia ''Huaxia'' (華夏, ) is a historical concept representing the Chinese nation, and came from the self-awareness of a common cultural ancestry by the various confederations of pre-Qin ethnic ancestors of Han people. Etymology The earliest ...
tribal confederation, but also included those founded by non-Han peoples. Dividing Chinese history into periods ruled by dynasties is a convenient method of periodization. Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period. For example, porcelain made during the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
may be referred to as "Ming porcelain". The word "dynasty" is usually omitted when making such adjectival references. The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the
Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
, ruling for a total length of 789 years, albeit it is divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou in
Chinese historiography Chinese historiography is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China. Overview of Chinese history The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 ...
, and its power was drastically reduced during the latter part of its rule. The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
or the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
, depending on the historical source. Chinese dynasties often referred to themselves as "" (; "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty"). As a form of respect and subordination, Chinese tributary states referred to Chinese dynasties as "" (; "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State") or "" (; "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State").


Terminology

In the Chinese language, the character "" () originally meant "morning" and "today". Politically, the word is taken to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. The following is a list of terms associated with the concept of dynasty in Chinese historiography: * (): a dynasty * (): an era corresponding to the rule of a dynasty * (): while technically referring to royal dynasties, this term is often inaccurately applied to all dynasties, including those whose rulers held non-royal titles such as
emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...
* (): generally used for imperial dynasties


History


Start of dynastic rule

As the founder of China's first orthodox dynasty, the Xia dynasty,
Yu the Great Yu the Great (大禹) was a legendary king in ancient China who was famed for his introduction of flood control, his establishment of the Xia dynasty which inaugurated dynastic rule in China, and his upright moral character. He figures promine ...
is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China. In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed absolute power and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors. By tradition, the Chinese throne was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the consort kins came to possess ''de facto'' power at the expense of the monarchs. This concept, known as (; "All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family"), was in contrast to the pre-Xia notion of (; "All under Heaven belongs to the public") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary.


Dynastic transition

The rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule. This method of explanation has come to be known as the dynastic cycle. Cases of dynastic transition (; ) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation. The supersession of the
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
by the Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of China proper under the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
; on the other hand, the transition from the Eastern Han to the
Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' < : *''ŋjweiC'' < Southern Qi to the Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—a process called (; "voluntary abdicating and passing the throne")—as a means to legitimize their rule. One might incorrectly infer from viewing
historical timelines History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime. For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
succeeded the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
in possessing the Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the Later Jin established in AD 1616, while the Ming imperial family would rule the Southern Ming until AD 1662. The Ming loyalist
Kingdom of Tungning The Kingdom of Tungning (), also known as Tywan by the British at the time, was a dynastic maritime state that ruled part of southwestern Taiwan and the Penghu islands between 1661 and 1683. It is the first predominantly Han Chinese state in ...
based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683. Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the Ming–Qing transition, most notably the
Shun Shun may refer to one of the following: *To shun, which means avoiding association with an individual or group * Shun (given name), a masculine Japanese given name *Seasonality in Japanese cuisine (''shun'', 旬) Emperor Shun * Emperor Shun (舜 ...
and the Xi dynasties proclaimed by
Li Zicheng Li Zicheng (22 September 1606 – 1645), born Li Hongji, also known by the nickname, Dashing King, was a Chinese peasant rebel leader who overthrew the Ming dynasty in 1644 and ruled over northern China briefly as the emperor of the short-li ...
and
Zhang Xianzhong Zhang Xianzhong (张献忠 or Chang Hsien-chung; 18 September 1606 – 2 January 1647), nickname Huanghu (literally 'Yellow Tiger'), was a Chinese peasant leader who led a peasant revolt from Yan'an wei, Shaanxi (today Yulin, Shaanxi province ...
respectively. This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper. Similarly, during the earlier Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and la ...
weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (; by Li Mi), Qin (; by
Xue Ju Xue Ju () (died 618), formally Emperor Wu (武皇帝, "Martial"), was the founding emperor of a short-lived state of Qin at the end of the Chinese dynasty Sui Dynasty, whose state was eventually destroyed by the Tang Dynasty. He rose against Sui ...
), Qi (; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (; by Yuwen Huaji), Liang (; by
Shen Faxing Shen Faxing (died AD 620) was an official of the Chinese Sui dynasty who, after Emperor Yang was killed in a coup led by the general Yuwen Huaji in 618, seized the area of present-day Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu and declared himself the ...
), Liang (; by
Liang Shidu Liang Shidu (梁師都) (died June 3, 628) was an agrarian leader who rebelled against the rule of the Chinese dynasty Sui Dynasty near the end of the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui. He, claiming the title of Emperor of Liang with the aid from Ea ...
), Xia (; by Dou Jiande), Zheng (; by Wang Shichong), Chu (; by
Zhu Can Zhu Can () (died 621) was an agrarian rebel leader during the disintegration of the Chinese dynasty Sui Dynasty. He was particularly noted for his cruelty and his penchant for favoring cannibalism, and he, while not having a set base of operation ...
), Chu (; by
Lin Shihong Lin Shihong (林士弘) (died 622) was an agrarian king who rose against the rule of the Chinese Sui Dynasty near the end of Emperor Yang's reign. For several years, he controlled most of modern Jiangxi and Guangdong, but was then under attack ...
), Wu (; by Li Zitong), Yan (; by
Gao Kaidao Gao Kaidao (高開道) (died 624), at one point known as Li Kaidao (李開道), was an agrarian rebel leader who rose against the Sui Dynasty at the end of Emperor Yang's reign. He occupied the region centering Huairong (懷戎, in modern Zhangji ...
), and Song (; by
Fu Gongshi Fu or FU may refer to: In arts and entertainment *Fool Us, Penn & Teller's magic-competition television show *Fǔ, a type of ancient Chinese Chinese ritual bronzes, vessel *Fu (poetry) (赋), a Chinese genre of rhymed prose *''FU: Friendship Unli ...
). The
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper. Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted noble titles in accordance with the (; "two crownings, three respects") system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei was accorded the title "Prince of Zhongshan" by the Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi following the latter's deposition of the former. Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was conferred the title "Duke of Chongyi" by the Emperor Renzong of Song; other descendants of the Later Zhou ruling family came to inherit the noble title thereafter. According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the '' Twenty-Four Histories''. This tradition was maintained even after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the
Republic of China Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeas ...
. However, the attempt by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the
Chinese Civil War The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China and forces of the Chinese Communist Party, continuing intermittently since 1 August 1927 until 7 December 1949 with a Communist victory on main ...
, which resulted in the political division of China into the
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
on
mainland China "Mainland China" is a geopolitical term defined as the territory governed by the China, People's Republic of China (including islands like Hainan or Chongming Island, Chongming), excluding dependent territories of the PRC, and other territorie ...
and the
Republic of China Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeas ...
on
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the no ...
.


End of dynastic rule

Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
following the success of the Xinhai Revolution. While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy. During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (), the Duke of Yansheng and a 76th-generation descendant of
Confucius Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao. Meanwhile, gentry in
Anhui Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze Riv ...
and
Hebei Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and ...
supported a restoration of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
under Zhu Yuxun (), the Marquis of Extended Grace. Both suggestions were ultimately rejected. The Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by Yuan Shikai sparked the
National Protection War The National Protection War (), also known as the Anti-Monarchy War, was a civil war that took place in China between 1915 and 1916. Only three years earlier, the last Chinese dynasty, the Qing dynasty, had been overthrown and the Republic o ...
, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later. The Manchu Restoration (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days. Similarly, the
Manchukuo Manchukuo, officially the State of Manchuria prior to 1934 and the Empire of (Great) Manchuria after 1934, was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Manchuria from 1932 until 1945. It was founded as a republic in 1932 after the Japanese ...
(AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the
Empire of Japan The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was a historical nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-World War II 1947 constitution and subsequent form ...
during
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...
with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime. Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the
Xuantong Emperor Aisin-Gioro Puyi (; 7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967), courtesy name Yaozhi (曜之), was the last emperor of China as the eleventh and final Qing dynasty monarch. He became emperor at the age of two in 1908, but was forced to abdicate on 1 ...
on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.


Political legitimacy

China was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own
court A court is any person or institution, often as a government institution, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between parties and carry out the administration of justice in civil, criminal, and administrative matters in acco ...
and political institutions. Political division existed during the
Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and was followed by the West ...
, the
Sixteen Kingdoms The Sixteen Kingdoms (), less commonly the Sixteen States, was a chaotic period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states. The majority of these states were founded by ...
, the
Northern and Southern dynasties The Northern and Southern dynasties () was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of the Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty. It is sometimes considered a ...
, and the
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen concu ...
periods, among others. Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around
political legitimacy In political science, legitimacy is the right and acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or a regime. Whereas ''authority'' denotes a specific position in an established government, the term ''legitimacy'' denotes a system of gove ...
, which was derived from the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of
Chinese culture Chinese culture () is one of the world's oldest cultures, originating thousands of years ago. The culture prevails across a large geographical region in East Asia and is extremely diverse and varying, with customs and traditions varying grea ...
and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as "legitimate" or "orthodox" (; ) are termed (; "dynasty"); "illegitimate" or "unorthodox" regimes are referred to as (; usually translated as either "state" or "kingdom"), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature. Such legitimacy dispute existed during the following periods: * Three Kingdoms ** The
Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' < : *''ŋjweiC'' < Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <
Eastern Wu Wu (Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' < : ''*ŋuɑ''), known in hi ...
considered themselves legitimate while simultaneously denounced the rivaling claims of others ** The
Emperor Xian of Han Emperor Xian of Han (2 April 181 – 21 April 234), personal name Liu Xie (劉協), courtesy name Bohe, was the 14th and last emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty in China. He reigned from 28 September 189 until 11 December 220. Liu Xie was a s ...
abdicated in favor of the Emperor Wen of Cao Wei, hence the Cao Wei directly succeeded the Eastern Han in the
timeline of Chinese history __NOTOC__ This is a timeline of Chinese history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in China and its predecessor states. To read about the background to these events, see History of China. See also the li ...
** The Western Jin accepted the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty of the Three Kingdoms period and claimed succession from it ** The
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
viewed the Cao Wei as the legitimate dynasty during this period, whereas the
Southern Song The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
scholar
Zhu Xi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...
proposed treating the Shu Han as legitimate * Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms ** The Eastern Jin proclaimed itself to be legitimate ** Several of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as the Han Zhao, the Later Zhao, and the
Former Qin The Former Qin, also called Fu Qin (苻秦), (351–394) was a dynastic state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese history ruled by the Di ethnicity. Founded by Fu Jian (posthumously Emperor Jingming) who originally served under the Later ...
also claimed legitimacy * Northern and Southern dynasties ** All dynasties during this period saw themselves as the legitimate representative of China; the Northern dynasties referred to their southern counterparts as "" (; "island dwelling barbarians"), while the Southern dynasties called their northern neighbors "" (; "barbarians with braids") * Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ** Having directly succeeded the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang considered itself to be a legitimate dynasty ** The Later Tang regarded itself as the restorer of the earlier Tang dynasty and rejected the legitimacy of its predecessor, the Later Liang ** The Later Jin accepted the Later Tang as a legitimate regime ** The Southern Tang was, for a period of time, considered the legitimate dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period ** Since the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
, Chinese historiography has generally considered the
Five Dynasties The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen conc ...
, as opposed to the contemporary
Ten Kingdoms The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen concu ...
, to be legitimate *
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
, Song dynasty, and Jin dynasty ** Following the conquest of the Later Jin, the Liao dynasty claimed legitimacy and succession from it ** Both the Northern Song and Southern Song considered themselves to be the legitimate Chinese dynasty ** The Jin dynasty challenged the Song's claim of legitimacy ** The succeeding
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
recognized all three in addition to the
Western Liao The Qara Khitai, or Kara Khitai (), also known as the Western Liao (), officially the Great Liao (), was a Sinicized dynastic regime based in Central Asia ruled by the Khitan Yelü clan. The Qara Khitai is considered by historians to be an ...
as legitimate Chinese dynasties, culminating in the composition of the '' History of Liao'', the '' History of Song'', and the '' History of Jin''Brook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 52. *
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
and Northern Yuan ** The Ming dynasty recognized the preceding Yuan dynasty as a legitimate Chinese dynasty, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Yuan, thus considering the Northern Yuan as illegitimate ** Northern Yuan rulers maintained the dynastic name "Great Yuan" and claimed traditional Han-style titles continuously until AD 1388 or AD 1402; Han-style titles were restored on several occasions thereafter for brief periods, notably during the reigns of Taisun Khan, Choros Esen, and Dayan Khan ** The historian Rashipunsug argued that the Northern Yuan had succeeded the legitimacy from the Yuan dynasty; the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
, which later defeated and annexed the Northern Yuan, inherited this legitimacy, thus rendering the Ming as illegitimateBrook, Walt van Praag & Boltjes (2018). p. 54. * Qing dynasty and Southern Ming ** The Qing dynasty recognized the preceding Ming dynasty as legitimate, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Ming, thus refuting the claimed legitimacy of the Southern Ming ** The Southern Ming continued to claim legitimacy until its eventual defeat by the Qing ** The Ming loyalist
Kingdom of Tungning The Kingdom of Tungning (), also known as Tywan by the British at the time, was a dynastic maritime state that ruled part of southwestern Taiwan and the Penghu islands between 1661 and 1683. It is the first predominantly Han Chinese state in ...
in Taiwan denounced the Qing dynasty as illegitimate ** The
Joseon dynasty Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and r ...
of Korea and the
Later Lê dynasty Later may refer to: * Future, the time after the present Television * ''Later'' (talk show), a 1988–2001 American talk show * '' Later... with Jools Holland'', a British music programme since 1992 * ''The Life and Times of Eddie Roberts'', or ...
of Vietnam had at various times considered the Southern Ming, instead of the Qing dynasty, as legitimate ** The
Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate (, Japanese 徳川幕府 ''Tokugawa bakufu''), also known as the , was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Tokugawa-jidai''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia ...
of Japan did not accept the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty and instead saw itself as the rightful representative of (; "China"); this narrative served as the basis of Japanese texts such as ''Chūchō Jijitsu'' and ''Kai Hentai'' Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved. From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods. Traditionally, as most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time. Most historical sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows: These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
and the Republic of China based in
Taipei Taipei (), officially Taipei City, is the capital and a special municipality of the Republic of China (Taiwan). Located in Northern Taiwan, Taipei City is an enclave of the municipality of New Taipei City that sits about southwest of the ...
. Both regimes formally adhere to the
One-China principle The term One China may refer to one of the following: * The One China principle is the position held by the People's Republic of China (PRC) that there is only one sovereign state under the name China, with the PRC serving as the sole legit ...
and claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the whole of China.


Agnatic lineages

There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would necessitate nomenclatural distinction in academia, despite these ruling clans having shared common ancestral origins. Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded. The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians: * Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou ** ** The Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou were ruled by the House of Ji; they are collectively known as the
Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
** The founder of the Eastern Zhou, the King Ping of Zhou, was a son of the last Western Zhou ruler, the King You of Zhou *
Western Han The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a war ...
, Eastern Han,
Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <
Liu Song ** The Western Han, the Eastern Han, the Shu Han, and the Liu Song were ruled by the House of Liu; the first two of which are collectively known as the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
** The first emperor of the Eastern Han, the Emperor Guangwu of Han, was a ninth-generation descendant of the Western Han founder, the Emperor Gao of Han; he was also a seventh-generation descendant of the sixth Western Han monarch, the Emperor Jing of Han ** The founder of the Shu Han, the Emperor Zhaolie of Shu Han, was also descended from the Emperor Jing of Han ** The '' Book of Song'' states that the first Liu Song ruler, the Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was a male-line descendant of a younger brother of the Emperor Gao of Han, the Prince Yuan of Chu * Western Jin and Eastern Jin ** The Western Jin and the Eastern Jin were ruled by the House of Sima; they are collectively known as the Jin dynasty ** The Eastern Jin founder, the Emperor Yuan of Jin, was a great-grandson of the Emperor Xuan of Jin; he was also a grandson of the Prince Wu of Langya and a son of the Prince Gong of Langya * Han Zhao and Hu Xia ** The Han Zhao and the Hu Xia were ruled by the House of Luandi (later renamed the House of Liu and the House of Helian respectively) ** The Han Zhao founder, the Emperor Guangwen of Han Zhao, and the Hu Xia founder, the Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia, were descended from Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qubei respectively; according to the '' History of the Northern Dynasties'', Liu Qiangqu and Liu Qibei were brothers *
Former Yan The Former Yan (; 337–370) was a dynastic state ruled by the Xianbei during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Initially, Murong Huang and his son Murong Jun claimed the Jin dynasty-created title "Prince of Yan," but subsequently, in 352 ...
, Later Yan, and Southern Yan ** The Former Yan, the Later Yan, and the Southern Yan were ruled by the House of Murong ** The founder of the Later Yan, the Emperor Chengwu of Later Yan, was a son of the Former Yan founder, the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan ** The first monarch of the Southern Yan, the Emperor Xianwu of Southern Yan, was also a son of the Emperor Wenming of Former Yan * Northern Wei, Southern Liang, Eastern Wei, and Western Wei ** The Northern Wei, the Southern Liang, the Eastern Wei, and the Western Wei were ruled by the House of Tuoba (later renamed the House of Yuan and the House of Tufa respectively) ** The Northern Wei founder, the Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei, and the Southern Liang founder, the Prince Wu of Southern Liang, were respectively descended from the sons of the Emperor Shengwu of Northern Wei, the Emperor Shenyuan of Northern Wei and Tufa Pigu ** The only ruler of the Eastern Wei, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei, was a great-grandson of the seventh emperor of the Northern Wei, the
Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei ((北)魏孝文帝) (October 13, 467 – April 26, 499), personal name né Tuoba Hong (拓拔宏), later Yuan Hong (元宏), was an emperor of the Northern Wei from September 20, 471 to April 26, 499. Under the r ...
** The Western Wei founder, the Emperor Wen of Western Wei, was a grandson of the Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei * Southern Qi and Liang dynasty ** The Southern Qi and the Liang dynasty were ruled by the House of Xiao ** The founder of the Liang dynasty, the Emperor Wu of Liang, was a son of the Emperor Wen of Liang who was a distant cousin of the Southern Qi founder, the Emperor Gao of Southern Qi * Western Liang and
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
** The Western Liang and the Tang dynasty were ruled by the House of Li ** The founder of the Tang dynasty, the Emperor Gaozu of Tang, was a seventh-generation descendant of the Western Liang founder, the Prince Wuzhao of Western Liang * Later Han and Northern Han ** The Later Han and the Northern Han were ruled by the House of Liu ** The first ruler of the Northern Han, the Emperor Shizu of Northern Han, was a younger brother of the Later Han founder, the Emperor Gaozu of Later Han *
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
and
Western Liao The Qara Khitai, or Kara Khitai (), also known as the Western Liao (), officially the Great Liao (), was a Sinicized dynastic regime based in Central Asia ruled by the Khitan Yelü clan. The Qara Khitai is considered by historians to be an ...
** The Liao dynasty and the Western Liao were ruled by the House of Yelü ** The Western Liao founder, the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao, was an eighth-generation descendant of the first emperor of the Liao dynasty, the Emperor Taizu of Liao * Northern Song and
Southern Song The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
** The Northern Song and the Southern Song were ruled by the House of Zhao; they are collectively known as the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
** The first ruler of the Southern Song, the Emperor Gaozong of Song, was a son of the eighth Northern Song monarch, the
Emperor Huizong of Song Emperor Huizong of Song (7 June 1082 – 4 June 1135), personal name Zhao Ji, was the eighth emperor of the Northern Song dynasty of China. He was also a very well-known calligrapher. Born as the 11th son of Emperor Shenzong, he ascended the ...
; he was also a younger brother of the last Northern Song emperor, the Emperor Qinzong of Song *
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
and Northern Yuan ** The Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan were ruled by the House of Borjigin ** The Emperor Huizong of Yuan was both the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty and the first ruler of the Northern Yuan *
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
and Southern Ming ** The Ming dynasty and the Southern Ming were ruled by the House of Zhu ** The Southern Ming founder, the Hongguang Emperor, was a grandson of the 14th emperor of the Ming dynasty, the Wanli Emperor * Later Jin and
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
** The Later Jin and the Qing dynasty were ruled by the House of Aisin Gioro ** The Emperor Taizong of Qing was both the last Later Jin khan and the first emperor of the Qing dynasty


Classification


Central Plain dynasties

The Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the
Yellow River The Yellow River or Huang He (Chinese: , Mandarin: ''Huáng hé'' ) is the second-longest river in China, after the Yangtze River, and the sixth-longest river system in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Ha ...
which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. "Central Plain dynasties" (; ) refer to dynasties of China that had their capital cities situated within the Central Plain. This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.


Unified dynasties

"Unified dynasties" (; ) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. "China proper" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term "China". Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the "Chinese Empire" or the "Empire of China" (; ). The concept of "great unity" or "grand unification" (; ) was first mentioned in the '' Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals'' that was supposedly authored by the Qi scholar Gongyang Gao. Other prominent figures like Confucius and
Mencius Mencius ( ); born Mèng Kē (); or Mèngzǐ (; 372–289 BC) was a Chinese Confucian philosopher who has often been described as the "second Sage", that is, second to Confucius himself. He is part of Confucius' fourth generation of discip ...
also elaborated on this concept in their respective works. Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the Qin dynasty, the
Western Han The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a war ...
, the Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han, the Western Jin, the
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and la ...
, the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
, the Zhou dynasty (690–705), Wu Zhou, the Northern Song, the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
, the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, and the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
. The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the Sixteen Prefectures, Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun were partially administered by the contemporaneous
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
while the Western Xia exercised partial control over Hetao; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper.


Infiltration dynasties and conquest dynasties

According to the historian and sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper. "Infiltration dynasties" or "dynasties of infiltration" (; ) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society. For instance, the Han Zhao and the Northern Wei, established by the Xiongnu and Xianbei ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China. "Conquest dynasties" or "dynasties of conquest" (; ) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities. For example, the
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
and the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
, ruled by the Khitan people, Khitan and Mongols, Mongol peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China. These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.


Naming convention


Official nomenclature

It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the (; "name of the state"), upon the establishment of a dynasty.Wilkinson (2000). pp. 13–14. During the rule of a dynasty, its functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes. The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources: * The name of the ruling tribe or tribal confederation ** e.g., the Xia dynasty took its name from its ruling class, the Xia tribal confederation * The noble title held by the dynastic founder prior to the founding of the dynasty ** e.g., the Emperor Wu of Chen adopted the dynastic name "Chen" from his pre-imperial title "Prince of Chen" upon the establishment of the Chen dynasty * The name of a historical state that occupied the same geographical location as the new dynasty ** e.g., the
Former Yan The Former Yan (; 337–370) was a dynastic state ruled by the Xianbei during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Initially, Murong Huang and his son Murong Jun claimed the Jin dynasty-created title "Prince of Yan," but subsequently, in 352 ...
was officially named "Yan" based on the ancient Yan (state), State of Yan located in the same region * The name of a previous dynasty from which the new dynasty claimed descent or succession from, even if such familial link was questionable ** e.g., the Guo Wei, Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou officially proclaimed the Later Zhou with the official title "Zhou" as he claimed ancestry from Guo Shu, a royal of the
Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
* A term with auspicious or other significant connotations ** e.g., the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
was officially the "Great Yuan", a name derived from a clause in the ''I Ching, Classic of Changes'', "" (; "Great is the Heavenly and Primal") There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as Southern Han initially used the name "Yue", only to be renamed to "Han" subsequently. The official title of several dynasties bore the character "" (; "great"). In ''Yongzhuang Xiaopin'' by the Ming dynasty, Ming historian Zhu Guozhen (Ming dynasty), Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty. However, several sources like the ''History of Liao'' and the ''History of Jin'' compiled by the Yuan historian Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty), Toqto'a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the Liao dynasty, Liao and the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), Jin also contained the character "". It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term "" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it. For instance, ''Nihon Shoki, The Chronicles of Japan'' referred to the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
as "" (; "Great Tang") despite its dynastic name being simply "Tang". While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with (; "Central State"; usually translated as "Middle Kingdom" or "China" in English texts) and various other names of China, none of these regimes officially used such names as their dynastic title. Although the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
explicitly identified their state with and employed ""—and its Manchu language, Manchu equivalent "''Dulimbai Gurun''" ()—in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the "Great Qing". "", which has become nearly synonymous with "China" in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations. The adoption of , as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the East Asian cultural sphere, Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnam and Korea also declared for their respective realm.


Retroactive nomenclature

In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and la ...
is known as such because its formal name was "Sui". Likewise, the Jin dynasty was officially the "Great Jin". When more than one dynasty shared the same Chinese characters, Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes. Frequently used prefixes include: * Cardinal direction ** "Northern" (; ): e.g., Northern Qi, Northern Yuan ** "Southern" (; ): e.g., Southern Yan, Southern Tang ** "Eastern" (; ): e.g., Eastern Jin, Eastern Wei ** "Western" (; ): e.g., Western Liang,
Western Liao The Qara Khitai, or Kara Khitai (), also known as the Western Liao (), officially the Great Liao (), was a Sinicized dynastic regime based in Central Asia ruled by the Khitan Yelü clan. The Qara Khitai is considered by historians to be an ...
* Sequence ** "Former" (; ): e.g.,
Former Qin The Former Qin, also called Fu Qin (苻秦), (351–394) was a dynastic state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese history ruled by the Di ethnicity. Founded by Fu Jian (posthumously Emperor Jingming) who originally served under the Later ...
, Former Shu ** "Later" (; ): e.g., Later Zhao, Later Han * Surname of the ruling family ** e.g., Zhou dynasty (690–705), Wu Zhou, Ma Chu * Other types of prefixes ** e.g.,
Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <
Hu Xia (the prefix "Hu", meaning "Barbarian#China, barbarian", refers to the dynasty's ethnic Xiongnu origin) A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the
Western Han The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a war ...
is also known as the "Former Han", and the Yang Wu is also called the "Southern Wu". Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
is divided into the Northern Song and the
Southern Song The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
, with the Jingkang incident, Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original "Song" founded by the Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the "Song" restored under the Emperor Gaozong of Song. In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the Western Qin, the Southern Liang, and the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
; the first two were interrupted by the Later Qin, while the continuity of the latter was broken by the Zhou dynasty (690–705), Wu Zhou. In Chinese sources, the term "dynasty" (; ) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word "dynasty" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the "Northern Zhou dynasty". Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word "China" after the dynastic name. For instance, "Tang China" refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era.


Territorial extent

While the earliest orthodox Chinese dynasties were established along the Yellow River and the Yangtze, Yangtze River in China proper, numerous Chinese dynasties later Chinese expansionism, expanded beyond the region to encompass other territorial domains.Tanner (2009). p. 167. At various points in time, Chinese dynasties exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong), Taiwan, Manchuria (both Northeast China, Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria), Sakhalin, Mongolian Plateau, Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia), Vietnam under Chinese rule, Vietnam,Lockard (2020). p. 262. Tibet, East Turkestan, Xinjiang, as well as parts of Central Asia, the Korea, Korean Peninsula, Afghanistan,Hsu (2012). p. 268. and Siberia. Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fif ...
or the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
, depending on the historical source. This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic Ocean, Arctic coast. In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined. Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the Tributary system of China, Chinese tributary system. The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the
Western Han The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a war ...
and lasted until the 19th century AD when the Sinocentrism, Sinocentric order broke down. The modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse.Tanner (2009). p. 419.


List of major Chinese dynasties

This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole.


Timelines


Timeline of major historical periods


Timeline of major regimes

ImageSize = width:1600 height:auto barincrement:15 PlotArea = top:10 bottom:30 right:210 left:20 AlignBars = early DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:-2500 till:2000 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:200 start:-2500 Colors = id:canvas value:rgb(0.97,0.97,0.97) id:PD value:rgb(1,0.2,0.6) id:DY value:rgb(1,0.6,0.2) id:ND value:rgb(0,0.6,0) Backgroundcolors = canvas:canvas BarData = barset:Regimes PlotData= width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till barset:Regimes from: -2500 till: -2070 color:PD text:"Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors (before 2070 BC)" from: -2070 till: -1600 color:DY text:"Xia dynasty, Xia (2070–1600 BC)" from: -1600 till: -1046 color:DY text:"Shang dynasty, Shang (1600–1046 BC)" from: -1046 till: -771 color:DY text:"Western Zhou, W. Zhou (1046–771 BC)" from: -770 till: -256 color:DY text:"Eastern Zhou, E. Zhou (770–256 BC)" from: -221 till: -207 color:DY text:"Qin dynasty, Qin (221–207 BC)" from: -202 till: 9 color:DY text:"Han dynasty#Western Han, W. Han (202 BC–AD 9)" from: 9 till: 23 color:DY text:"Xin dynasty, Xin (AD 9–23)" from: 25 till: 220 color:DY text:"Han dynasty#Eastern Han, E. Han (AD 25–220)" from: 220 till: 266 color:DY text:"
Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' < : *''ŋjweiC'' < Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu (; pinyin: ''shŭ'' <
Han Zhao (AD 304–329)" from: 304 till: 347 color:DY text:"Cheng Han (AD 304–347)" from: 317 till: 420 color:DY text:"Jin dynasty (266–420)#Eastern Jin (317–420), E. Jin (AD 317–420)" from: 319 till: 351 color:DY text:"Later Zhao, L. Zhao (AD 319–351)" from: 320 till: 376 color:DY text:"Former Liang, F. Liang (AD 320–376)" from: 337 till: 370 color:DY text:"Former Yan, F. Yan (AD 337–370)" from: 351 till: 394 color:DY text:"Former Qin, F. Qin (AD 351–394)" from: 384 till: 409 color:DY text:"Later Yan, L. Yan (AD 384–409)" from: 384 till: 417 color:DY text:"Later Qin, L. Qin (AD 384–417)" from: 385 till: 400 color:DY text:"Western Qin, W. Qin (pre-interregnum; AD 385–400)" from: 386 till: 403 color:DY text:"Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms), L. Liang (AD 386–403)" from: 386 till: 535 color:DY text:"Northern Wei, N. Wei (AD 386–535)" from: 397 till: 414 color:DY text:"Southern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms), S. Liang (AD 397–414)" from: 397 till: 439 color:DY text:"Northern Liang, N. Liang (AD 397–439)" from: 398 till: 410 color:DY text:"Southern Yan, S. Yan (AD 398–410)" from: 400 till: 421 color:DY text:"Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms), W. Liang (AD 400–421)" from: 407 till: 431 color:DY text:" Hu Xia (AD 407–431)" from: 407 till: 436 color:DY text:"Northern Yan, N. Yan (AD 407–436)" from: 409 till: 431 color:DY text:"Western Qin, W. Qin (restored; AD 409–431)" from: 420 till: 479 color:DY text:" Liu Song (AD 420–479)" from: 479 till: 502 color:DY text:"Southern Qi, S. Qi (AD 479–502)" from: 502 till: 557 color:DY text:"Liang dynasty, Liang (AD 502–557)" from: 534 till: 550 color:DY text:"Eastern Wei, E. Wei (AD 534–550)" from: 535 till: 557 color:DY text:"Western Wei, W. Wei (AD 535–557)" from: 550 till: 577 color:DY text:"Northern Qi, N. Qi (AD 550–577)" from: 557 till: 581 color:DY text:"Northern Zhou, N. Zhou (AD 557–581)" from: 557 till: 589 color:DY text:"Chen dynasty, Chen (AD 557–589)" from: 581 till: 619 color:DY text:"Sui dynasty, Sui (AD 581–619)" from: 618 till: 690 color:DY text:"Tang dynasty, Tang (pre-interregnum; AD 618–690)" from: 690 till: 705 color:DY text:"Zhou dynasty (690–705), Wu Zhou (AD 690–705)" from: 705 till: 907 color:DY text:"Tang dynasty, Tang (restored; AD 705–907)" from: 907 till: 923 color:DY text:"Later Liang (Five Dynasties), L. Liang (AD 907–923)" from: 907 till: 925 color:DY text:"Former Shu, F. Shu (AD 907–925)" from: 907 till: 937 color:DY text:"Yang Wu (AD 907–937)" from: 907 till: 951 color:DY text:"Ma Chu (AD 907–951)" from: 907 till: 978 color:DY text:"Wuyue (AD 907–978)" from: 909 till: 945 color:DY text:"Min Kingdom, Min (AD 909–945)" from: 916 till: 1125 color:DY text:"Liao dynasty, Liao (AD 916–1125)" from: 917 till: 971 color:DY text:"Southern Han, S. Han (AD 917–971)" from: 923 till: 937 color:DY text:"Later Tang, L. Tang (AD 923–937)" from: 924 till: 963 color:DY text:"Jingnan (AD 924–963)" from: 934 till: 965 color:DY text:"Later Shu, L. Shu (AD 934–965)" from: 936 till: 947 color:DY text:"Later Jin (Five Dynasties), L. Jin (AD 936–947)" from: 937 till: 976 color:DY text:"Southern Tang, S. Tang (AD 937–976)" from: 947 till: 951 color:DY text:"Later Han (Five Dynasties), L. Han (AD 947–951)" from: 951 till: 960 color:DY text:"Later Zhou, L. Zhou (AD 951–960)" from: 951 till: 979 color:DY text:"Northern Han, N. Han (AD 951–979)" from: 960 till: 1127 color:DY text:"Northern Song (960–1127), N. Song (AD 960–1127)" from: 1038 till: 1227 color:DY text:"Western Xia, W. Xia (AD 1038–1227)" from: 1115 till: 1234 color:DY text:"Jin dynasty (1115–1234), Jin (AD 1115–1234)" from: 1124 till: 1218 color:DY text:"Qara Khitai, W. Liao (AD 1124–1218)" from: 1127 till: 1279 color:DY text:"Song dynasty#Southern Song, 1127–1279, S. Song (AD 1127–1279)" from: 1271 till: 1368 color:DY text:"Yuan dynasty, Yuan (AD 1271–1368)" from: 1368 till: 1635 color:DY text:"Northern Yuan, N. Yuan (AD 1368–1635)" from: 1368 till: 1644 color:DY text:"Ming dynasty, Ming (AD 1368–1644)" from: 1616 till: 1636 color:DY text:"Later Jin (1616–1636), L. Jin (AD 1616–1636)" from: 1636 till: 1912 color:DY text:"Qing dynasty, Qing (AD 1636–1912)" from: 1644 till: 1662 color:DY text:"Southern Ming, S. Ming (AD 1644–1662)" from: 1912 till: 2000 color:ND text:"History of the Republic of China, ROC (AD 1912–present)" from: 1949 till: 2000 color:ND text:"History of the People's Republic of China, PRC (AD 1949–present)" barset:skip


See also

* 1911 Revolution * Ancient Chinese states * Chinese expansionism *
Chinese historiography Chinese historiography is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China. Overview of Chinese history The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 ...
* Chinese sovereign * Conquest dynasty * Debate on the Chineseness of Yuan and Qing dynasties * Dragon Throne * Dynastic cycle * East Asian cultural sphere * Eighteen Kingdoms * Emperor at home, king abroad * Emperor of China * Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient) * Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early) * Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late) * Family tree of Chinese monarchs (middle) * Family tree of Chinese monarchs (Warring States period) * ''Fanzhen'' * ''Fengjian'' * Golden ages of China * Historical capitals of China * ''Jiedushi'' * Jimi system * List of Chinese monarchs * List of Confucian states and dynasties * List of recipients of tribute from China * List of tributary states of China * Mandate of Heaven * Monarchy of China * Names of China * ''Pax Sinica'' * Six Dynasties * Succession to the Chinese throne * Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors * ''Tianxia'' * Timeline of Chinese history * Tributary system of China * ''Tusi'' * '' Twenty-Four Histories'' * Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project * ''Zhonghua minzu''


Notes


References


Citations


Sources

* China Handbook Editorial Committee, ''China Handbook Series: History'' (trans., Dun J. Li), Beijing, 1982, pp. 188–189; and Shao Chang Lee, "China Cultural Development" (wall chart), East Lansing, 1984. * Specifically Section A.2 "Dynasties", in this and earlier editions, which includes subsections on "Naming the Dynasties", "Sets of Dynasties", "The Dynastic Cycle", "Legitimate Succession", "Grade School History" (the effect on common understanding of China's history).


External links

* Columbia University
''The Dynasties Song''
* Tan Qixiang
''The Historical Atlas of China''
{{authority control Dynasties in Chinese history, History of China Lists of dynasties, Chinese Royalty-related lists