HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

A complication in
medicine Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care pr ...
, or medical complication, is an unfavorable result of a
disease A disease is a particular abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism, and that is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that a ...
,
health Health, according to the World Health Organization, is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".World Health Organization. (2006)''Constitution of the World Health Organ ...
condition, or treatment. Complications may adversely affect the prognosis, or outcome, of a disease. Complications generally involve a worsening in severity of disease or the development of new signs,
symptoms Signs and symptoms are the observed or detectable signs, and experienced symptoms of an illness, injury, or condition. A sign for example may be a higher or lower temperature than normal, raised or lowered blood pressure or an abnormality showi ...
, or pathological changes which may become widespread throughout the body and affect other organ systems. Thus, complications may lead to the development of new diseases resulting from a previously existing disease. Complications may also arise as a result of various treatments. The development of complications depends on a number of factors, including the degree of vulnerability, susceptibility, age, health status, and
immune system The immune system is a network of biological processes that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinte ...
condition. Knowledge of the most common and severe complications of a disease, procedure, or treatment allow for prevention and preparation for treatment if they should occur. Complications are not to be confused with sequelae, which are residual effects that occur after the acute (initial, most severe) phase of an illness or injury. Sequelae can appear early in the development of disease or weeks to months later and are a result of the initial injury or illness. For example, a scar resulting from a burn or dysphagia resulting from a stroke would be considered sequelae. In addition, complications should not be confused with comorbidities, which are diseases that occur concurrently but have no causative association. Complications are similar to
adverse effect An adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other intervention, such as surgery. An adverse effect may be termed a " side effect", when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect. The term compl ...
s, but the latter tern is typically used in pharmacological contexts, or when the negative consequence is expected or common.


Common illnesses and complications


Iatrogenic complications

Medical errors can fall into various categories listed below: * Medication: Medication medical errors include wrong prescription, impaired delivery, or improper adherence. The process of prescribing medication is a complex process that relies on the accurate transfer of information through various parties. Prevention methods include increased use of electronic prescription, pre-packaging unit dosing, and ensuring medical literacy among patients. * Surgical: Surgery-related medical errors can be anesthesia-related, but most often include wrong-site and wrong-patient procedural errors. Preventive measures include following and double-checking standardized surgical protocol before, during, and after procedures. Universal surgical protocols include verification of patient identity and proper site-marking. *
Diagnostic Diagnosis is the identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon. Diagnosis is used in many different disciplines, with variations in the use of logic, analytics, and experience, to determine "cause and effect". In systems enginee ...
: Diagnostic errors include misdiagnosis, wrong diagnosis, and over diagnosis. Diagnostic errors are often the result of patient characteristics and physician bias. * Machine interface: Errors in this category refer to mistakes in human interaction with tools or machines. Machine-related errors can be reduced by standardization and clear differentiation in design of products. * Transition and handoff: Errors in this category can occur person-to-person or site-to-site during transfer, and can be managed by adhering to proper hand-off protocols. * Human factors, teamwork, and communication: Errors in this category highlight the impact of culture and relationships on communication. These concepts can play a role in other categories of medical errors. Preventive measures include cultivating a "culture of safety" which includes creating an environment where people feel comfortable discussing concerns, feedback, and errors without fear of punishment. * Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs): HAIs are complications of general treatments involving
microorganism A microorganism, or microbe,, ''mikros'', "small") and ''organism'' from the el, ὀργανισμός, ''organismós'', "organism"). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated (''micro-organism''), especially in old ...
s or viral infections and are most commonly caused by indwelling devices (
urinary catheters In urinary catheterization a latex, polyurethane, or silicone tube known as a urinary catheter is inserted into the bladder through the urethra to allow urine to drain from the bladder for collection. It may also be used to inject liquids used ...
, central lines) or previous surgical procedures. Common microbes involved in HAIs are ''Escherichia coli'', ''Proteus mirabilis'', and ''Clostridium difficile''. The most effective preventive measure is hand-hygiene.


Cardiovascular complications


Atrial fibrillation

Atrial fibrillation is a type of arrhythmia characterized by rapid and irregular heart rhythms due to irregular atrial activation by the atrioventricular (AV) node. In the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation, there is no effective pumping of blood into either the pulmonary or
systemic circulation The blood circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the entire body of a human or other vertebrate. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, t ...
from the left ventricle of the heart. The left and right ventricles (lower chambers of the heart) do not fill properly due to the irregular contraction of the left and right atria (upper chambers of the heart). A patient with atrial fibrillation may experience symptoms of fatigue,
dizziness Dizziness is an imprecise term that can refer to a sense of disorientation in space, vertigo, or lightheadedness. It can also refer to disequilibrium or a non-specific feeling, such as giddiness or foolishness. Dizziness is a common medical c ...
or lightheadedness,
heart palpitations Palpitations are perceived abnormalities of the heartbeat characterized by awareness of cardiac muscle contractions in the chest, which is further characterized by the hard, fast and/or irregular beatings of the heart. Symptoms include a rapi ...
, chest pain, and
shortness of breath Shortness of breath (SOB), also medically known as dyspnea (in AmE) or dyspnoea (in BrE), is an uncomfortable feeling of not being able to breathe well enough. The American Thoracic Society defines it as "a subjective experience of breathing di ...
. The heart does not effectively pump blood into the pulmonary or systemic vasculature, and causes the blood to remain within the chambers of the heart. The collection of blood within the heart due to atrial fibrillation can cause and increase the risk of development of a thrombus (blood clot). The thrombus can also develop into an embolus (mobile blood clot) and travel into the systemic circulation. Atrial fibrillation is associated with an increase in risk of having a
stroke A stroke is a disease, medical condition in which poor cerebral circulation, blood flow to the brain causes cell death. There are two main types of stroke: brain ischemia, ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and intracranial hemorrhage, hemorr ...
especially if the embolus travels to the brain. ''Other examples'' *
Thrombosis Thrombosis (from Ancient Greek "clotting") is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a blood vessel (a vein or an artery) is injured, the body uses platelets (th ...
in the
heart The heart is a muscular Organ (biology), organ in most animals. This organ pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. The pumped blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body, while carrying metabolic waste such as ca ...
or
brain A brain is an organ (biology), organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals. It is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs for senses such as Visual perception, vision. I ...
, causing
stroke A stroke is a disease, medical condition in which poor cerebral circulation, blood flow to the brain causes cell death. There are two main types of stroke: brain ischemia, ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and intracranial hemorrhage, hemorr ...
or acute myocardial infarction can be complications of blood coagulation disorders, phlebitis (inflammation of the
veins Veins are blood vessels in humans and most other animals that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated ...
),
endocarditis Endocarditis is an inflammation of the inner layer of the heart, the endocardium. It usually involves the heart valves. Other structures that may be involved include the interventricular septum, the chordae tendineae, the mural endocardium, or the ...
and artificial heart valves.


Metabolic complications


Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level ( hyperglycemia) over a prolonged period of time. Symptoms often include frequent urination, increased thirst and increased ...
, also known simply as diabetes, is a disorder of the regulation of
blood glucose Glycaemia, also known as blood sugar level, blood sugar concentration, or blood glucose level is the measure of glucose concentrated in the blood of humans or other animals. Approximately 4 grams of glucose, a simple sugar, is present in the b ...
(a common type of sugar) levels. There are two types of chronic diabetes mellitus: type I and type II. Both lead to abnormally high levels of blood glucose as the body is not able to properly absorb the sugar into tissues. Diabetes requires a life-long consistent monitoring of food intake, blood sugar levels, and physical activity.
Diabetes mellitus Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level ( hyperglycemia) over a prolonged period of time. Symptoms often include frequent urination, increased thirst and increased ...
may present a series of complications in an advanced or more severe stage, such as: * Cardiovascular disease. Adults with diabetes are significantly more likely to die from heart disease than are those without diabetes. Diabetes is associated with risk factors for various cardiovascular diseases including obesity, insulin resistance, high blood cholesterol and triglyceride content, and high blood pressure. These conditions increase risk of
thrombosis Thrombosis (from Ancient Greek "clotting") is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a blood vessel (a vein or an artery) is injured, the body uses platelets (th ...
, atherosclerosis (blockage of coronary arteries leading to inadequate supply of oxygen to parts of the heart), and hypertension which can lead to
myocardial infarction A myocardial infarction (MI), commonly known as a heart attack, occurs when blood flow decreases or stops to the coronary artery of the heart, causing damage to the heart muscle. The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which ma ...
, coronary artery disease (CAD), and others. * Diabetic neuropathy. Hyperglycemia can eventually cause damage to nerves in the distal extremities ( peripheral neuropathy), thighs and hips (radiculoplexus neuropathy), face (
mononeuropathy Peripheral neuropathy, often shortened to neuropathy, is a general term describing disease affecting the peripheral nerves, meaning nerves beyond the brain and spinal cord. Damage to peripheral nerves may impair sensation, movement, gland, or or ...
), and internal organs (
autonomic neuropathy Autonomic neuropathy (AN or AAN) is a form of polyneuropathy that affects the non-voluntary, non-sensory nervous system (i.e., the autonomic nervous system), affecting mostly the internal organs such as the bladder muscles, the cardiovascular sys ...
). Initial symptoms may present as numbness, tingling, pain, muscular weakness, loss of reflexes or proper bodily functions, and many others. * Diabetic nephropathy. Excessive amounts of certain solutes passing through the kidneys for prolonged periods of time can lead to kidney damage. Diabetic nephropathy is specifically characterized by abnormally high levels of urinary
albumin Albumin is a family of globular proteins, the most common of which are the serum albumins. All the proteins of the albumin family are water- soluble, moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experience heat denaturation. Album ...
excretion. This affects approximately 40% of patients with type I or type II diabetes. * Diabetic retinopathy. Chronic or prolonged type I and type II diabetes can lead to damage in the blood vessels of the retina due to hyperglycemia (excessive blood glucose). Damage and blockage of the vessels causes microaneurysms, tears, and leakage of fluid into the back of the eye. This can eventually lead to abnormal blood vessel growth, nerve damage, or excessive pressure buildup in the eye. Symptoms initially present as blurred vision but can lead to more serious complications such as
blindness Visual impairment, also known as vision impairment, is a medical definition primarily measured based on an individual's better eye visual acuity; in the absence of treatment such as correctable eyewear, assistive devices, and medical treatment� ...
,
glaucoma Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases that result in damage to the optic nerve (or retina) and cause vision loss. The most common type is open-angle (wide angle, chronic simple) glaucoma, in which the drainage angle for aqueous humor, fluid withi ...
, retinal detachment, and vitreous hemorrhage. * Foot damage. Diabetes mellitus can lead to poor vascular blood flow to the extremities. Injury of the foot with inadequate blood flow can progress to ulcers and become infected. Individuals with diabetic neuropathy may not notice the damage and may develop gangrene (tissue necrosis due to inadequate blood supply). * Skin conditions. Insulin insensitivity in the case of type II diabetes can cause prolonged increases in blood insulin. Insulin normally binds to insulin receptors but in excess amounts may bind to insulin-like growth factor (IGF) receptors in epithelial tissue. This can cause excessive proliferation of keratinocytes and fibroblasts. This presents as acanthosis nigricans, a thickening and darkening of areas of the skin such as the armpits, necks, hands, and face. Other skin conditions include
diabetic dermopathy Diabetic dermopathy is a type of skin lesion usually seen in people with diabetes mellitus. It is characterized by dull-red papules that progress to well-circumscribed, small, round, atrophic hyperpigmented skin lesions usually on the shins. It is ...
, digital sclerosis, eruptive xanthomatosis, and others.


Neurologic / psychiatric complications

* Hepatic encephalopathy is a possible complication of liver
cirrhosis Cirrhosis, also known as liver cirrhosis or hepatic cirrhosis, and end-stage liver disease, is the impaired liver function caused by the formation of scar tissue known as fibrosis due to damage caused by liver disease. Damage causes tissue rep ...
. * Significant intellectual, physical, and developmental disability are common complications of untreated
hydrocephalus Hydrocephalus is a condition in which an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) occurs within the brain. This typically causes increased pressure inside the skull. Older people may have headaches, double vision, poor balance, urinary i ...
. *
Suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and ...
is a common complication of many disorders and conditions that consistently affect a person's life negatively, such as
major depressive disorder Major depressive disorder (MDD), also known as clinical depression, is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of pervasive low mood, low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. Intro ...
,
posttraumatic stress disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental and behavioral disorder that can develop because of exposure to a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threat ...
,
schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social w ...
, anxiety disorders, or substance abuse. * Complications of outpatient drugs are very common and many patients experience worry or discomfort due to them. * Paradoxical reaction to a drug; that is, a reaction that is the opposite to the intended purpose of the drug. An example is benzodiazepines, a class of psychoactive drugs considered minor
tranquilizers A tranquilizer is a drug that is designed for the treatment of anxiety, fear, tension, agitation, and disturbances of the mind, specifically to reduce states of anxiety and tension. Etymology Tranquilizer, as a term, was first used by F.F. Yon ...
with varying hypnotic, sedative, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant effects; paradoxically they may also create hyperactivity, anxiety, convulsions etc. in susceptible individuals.


Reproductive complications


Pregnancy

Pregnancy Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops ( gestates) inside a woman's uterus (womb). A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins. Pregnancy usually occurs by sexual intercourse, but ...
is the development of an embryo or fetus inside the womb of a female for the rough duration of 9 months or 40 weeks from the last menstrual period until birth. It is divided into three trimesters, each lasting for about 3 months. The 1st trimester is when the developing embryo becomes a fetus, organs start to develop, limbs grow, and facial features appear. The 2nd and 3rd trimesters are marked by a significant amount of growth and functional development of the body. During this time, the woman's body undergoes a series of changes and many complications may arise involving either the fetus, the mother, or both. * Hypertension. The developing fetus enlarges in the mother's womb, placing pressure on the arteries and vasculature of the mother. This causes a reduction in blood flow and a systemic increase in blood pressure. If the mother had high blood pressure prior to and after pregnancy it is considered
chronic hypertension Hypertension (HTN or HT), also known as high blood pressure (HBP), is a long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms. Long-term high b ...
; if it occurs after 20 weeks of gestation or pregnancy, it is gestational hypertension. A previously hypertensive mother who shows signs of gestational hypertension can lead to
preeclampsia Pre-eclampsia is a disorder of pregnancy characterized by the onset of high blood pressure and often a significant amount of protein in the urine. When it arises, the condition begins after 20 weeks of pregnancy. In severe cases of the disease ...
, a more severe case which can be detrimental to the mother and developing fetus. *
Gestational diabetes Gestational diabetes is a condition in which a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy. Gestational diabetes generally results in few symptoms; however, it increases the risk of pre-eclampsia, depression, and ...
. Appropriate levels of blood sugar is typically maintained by insulin secretion from the
pancreas The pancreas is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdomen behind the stomach and functions as a gland. The pancreas is a mixed or heterocrine gland, i.e. it has both an ...
. During pregnancy the
placenta The placenta is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ that begins developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas and waste exchange between the physically separate mate ...
surrounding the developing fetus produces hormones that can inhibit the action of insulin, preventing the mother's blood sugar from decreasing. Occurs primarily in the second half of pregnancy and can cause excessive birth weight, preterm delivery, and place the child at greater risk for type II diabetes. * Preterm labor. Delivery of the baby prior to 37 weeks of pregnancy is considered preterm. This can cause a variety of issues with the child including underdeveloped viscera (organs), behavioral or learning disabilities, low birth weight, and respiratory issues. * Miscarriage. The loss of the developing fetus prior to 20 weeks of pregnancy. Common causes may be related to
chromosomal abnormalities A chromosomal abnormality, chromosomal anomaly, chromosomal aberration, chromosomal mutation, or chromosomal disorder, is a missing, extra, or irregular portion of chromosomal DNA. These can occur in the form of numerical abnormalities, where the ...
(abnormal genetic makeup) of the fetus but can also include ectopic pregnancy, maternal age, and other factors. * Stillbirth. The loss of the developing fetus after 20 weeks of pregnancy. Can be due to a variety of reasons including chromosomal abnormalities, developmental issues, or health-related problems of the mother. * Hyperemesis gravidarum. Persistent, acute nausea throughout pregnancy that does not go away after the 1st trimester. Different from morning sickness which is more common and less severe.


Respiratory complications


Streptococcal pharyngitis

Streptococcal pharyngitis, also known as strep throat, is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by group A Strep, '' Streptococcus pyogenes'', a gram-positive, cocci,
beta-hemolytic ''Streptococcus'' is a genus of gram-positive ' (plural ) or spherical bacteria that belongs to the family Streptococcaceae, within the order Lactobacillales (lactic acid bacteria), in the phylum Bacillota. Cell division in streptococci occur ...
(lyses blood cells) bacteria. It is primarily spread by direct contact and the transfer of fluids via oral or other secretions and manifests largely in children. Common symptoms associated with streptococcal pharyngitis include sore throat, fever, white excretions at the back of the mouth, and cervical adenopathy (swollen lymph nodes underneath the chin and around the neck area). Streptococcal pharyngitis can lead to various complications and recurrent infection can increase the likelihood. In many of these, lack of treatment and the body's
immune response An immune response is a reaction which occurs within an organism for the purpose of defending against foreign invaders. These invaders include a wide variety of different microorganisms including viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi which coul ...
is responsible for the additional adverse reactions. These include: * Scarlet fever. In addition to the symptoms of strep throat, individuals may experience increased a red rash, increased red tone, and strawberry tongue. The prominent rash generally fades after a few days and may peel for a few weeks. Treatment is the same as for strep throat. * Rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever generally develops a few weeks after symptoms of strep throat have passed and is less likely to develop if prompt treatment (antibiotics) is given. Typical symptoms can include polyarthritis (temporary joint pain in multiple areas), carditis or chest pain, rash, subcutaneous nodules, and involuntary jerks. Rheumatic fever is believed to be the result of an autoimmune reaction to various tissues in the body that are similar to toxins produced by ''Streptococcus pyogenes''. Rheumatic fever may lead to more serious complications of the heart such as rheumatic heart disease. * Glomerulonephritis. Onset of kidney damage that may present a few weeks after strep infection. Rather than being a direct result of infection in the kidneys, It is believed to be caused by an overreactive immune response. Symptoms can include blood or protein in the urine, hypertension, and reduced urine output. Can lead to further kidney damage later in life *
Otitis media Otitis media is a group of inflammatory diseases of the middle ear. One of the two main types is acute otitis media (AOM), an infection of rapid onset that usually presents with ear pain. In young children this may result in pulling at the ear, ...
. Infection of the middle ear. * Meningitis. Infection of the meninges of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) that leads to swelling. Symptoms vary and differ between adults and children but can include headaches, fever, stiff neck, and other neurological-related issues. Early treatment is important to prevent more serious complications. * Toxic shock syndrome. A severe reaction of the body to toxins produced by various bacteria such as Streptococcus pyogenes. Results from an overactive response by the immune system and can cause hypotension, fever, and in more severe cases, organ failure.


Surgical / procedural complications

* Puerperal fever was a common complication of
childbirth Childbirth, also known as labour and delivery, is the ending of pregnancy where one or more babies exits the internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section. In 2019, there were about 140.11 million births glob ...
, contributing to the high mortality of mothers before the advent of
antisepsis An antiseptic (from Greek ἀντί ''anti'', "against" and σηπτικός ''sēptikos'', "putrefactive") is an antimicrobial substance or compound that is applied to living tissue/ skin to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or pu ...
and antibiotics. * Erectile dysfunction and urinary incontinence which may follow prostatectomy. * Malignant hyperthermia can be a reaction to general anesthetics, as a complication in a surgery. * Fractured ribs and sternum may be a complication of
cardiopulmonary resuscitation Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure consisting of chest compressions often combined with artificial ventilation in an effort to manually preserve intact brain function until further measures are taken to restore spont ...
attempts.


Other examples of complications

*
Sepsis Sepsis, formerly known as septicemia (septicaemia in British English) or blood poisoning, is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to infection causes injury to its own tissues and organs. This initial stage is follo ...
(infection of the blood) may occur as a complication of a bacterial, viral, or fungal infection. * Miscarriage is the most common complication of early
pregnancy Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops ( gestates) inside a woman's uterus (womb). A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins. Pregnancy usually occurs by sexual intercourse, but ...
. * Eczema vaccinatum is a rare and severe complication of
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
vaccination Vaccination is the administration of a vaccine to help the immune system develop immunity from a disease. Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state, or proteins or toxins from the organism. In stimulat ...
in people with
eczema Dermatitis is inflammation of the skin, typically characterized by itchiness, redness and a rash. In cases of short duration, there may be small blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become thickened. The area of skin involved c ...
.


See also

*
Adverse effect An adverse effect is an undesired harmful effect resulting from a medication or other intervention, such as surgery. An adverse effect may be termed a " side effect", when judged to be secondary to a main or therapeutic effect. The term compl ...
* ''
Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals The ''Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals'' (''CPR'') is a taxonomy focused on defining and grouping together situations requiring a referral from pharmacists to physicians (and vice versa) regarding the pharmacotherapy used by the ...
'' *
Diagnosis Diagnosis is the identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon. Diagnosis is used in many different disciplines, with variations in the use of logic, analytics, and experience, to determine "cause and effect". In systems engin ...
*
Iatrogenesis Iatrogenesis is the causation of a disease, a harmful complication, or other ill effect by any medical activity, including diagnosis, intervention, error, or negligence. "Iatrogenic", ''Merriam-Webster.com'', Merriam-Webster, Inc., accessed 2 ...
* Late effect * Nocebo *
Placebo A placebo ( ) is a substance or treatment which is designed to have no therapeutic value. Common placebos include inert tablets (like sugar pills), inert injections (like Saline (medicine), saline), sham surgery, and other procedures. In general ...
* Prognosis * Sequela


References


Further reading

* * * {{refend Medical terminology