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''Comes'' ( ), plural ''comites'' ( ), was a Roman title or office, and the origin Latin form of the medieval and modern title "
count Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York ...
". Before becoming a word for various types of title or office, the word originally meant "companion", either individually or as a member of a collective denominated a "'' comitatus''", especially the suite of a
magnate The magnate term, from the late Latin ''magnas'', a great man, itself from Latin ''magnus'', "great", means a man from the higher nobility, a man who belongs to the high office-holders, or a man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or ot ...
, being in some instances sufficiently large and/or formal to justify specific denomination, e.g. a "'' cohors amicorum''". "''Comes''" derives from "''com-''" ("with") and "''ire''" ("go").


Ancient Roman religion

''Comes'' was a common
epithet An epithet (, ), also byname, is a descriptive term (word or phrase) known for accompanying or occurring in place of a name and having entered common usage. It has various shades of meaning when applied to seemingly real or fictitious people, di ...
or
title A title is one or more words used before or after a person's name, in certain contexts. It may signify either generation, an official position, or a professional or academic qualification. In some languages, titles may be inserted between the f ...
that was added to the name of a
hero A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or a main fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or strength. Like other formerly gender-specific terms (like ''actor''), ''her ...
or god in order to denote relation with another god. The coinage of Roman Emperor Constantine I declared him "''comes''" to
Sol Invictus Sol Invictus (, "Unconquered Sun"), sometimes simply known as Helios, was long considered to be the official sun god of the later Roman Empire. In recent years, however, the scholarly community has become divided on Sol between traditionalists ...
("Unconquered Sun") ''qua'' god.


Imperial Roman curial titles and offices styled ''Comites''

Historically more significant, "''comes''" became a secular title granted to trusted officials of the Imperial ''Curia'' ("Court"), present or former, and others as sign of Imperial confidence. It developed into a formal, dignitary title, derived from the " Companions" of
Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
and rather equivalent to the
Hellenistic In Classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Mediterranean history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire, as signified by the Battle of Actium in ...
title of "'' philos basilikos''" or the paladin title of a
knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the Christian denomination, church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood ...
of the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 unt ...
and a Papal Palatinus. Thus the title was retained when the titulary was appointed, often promoted, to an office away from court, frequently in the field or a provincial administration. Subsequently, it was thought logical to connect the title to specific offices that demanded an incumbent official of high dignity, and even to include it as part of the official title. As the Imperial Roman ''Curia'' increased in number and assimilated all political power, the Roman Emperors instituted a casual practice of appointing faithful servants to offices. This had been done elsewhere, e. g. regarding the
Prefect of the Praetorian Guard The praetorian prefect ( la, praefectus praetorio, el, ) was a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders be ...
and the ''
amici principis {{short description, Roman Latin term meaning "cohort of friends" ''Cohors amicorum'' is a Latin term, literally meaning "cohort of friends". The notion wiktionary:cohort, cohort is to be taken not in the strict, military sense (primarily the consti ...
''. As Imperial administration expanded, however, new offices became necessary and decentralization demanded modifications. The result was the institution of the rank of "''comes''". The "''comites''", often translated as "counts", though they were neither feudal nor hereditary, became principal officials of the later
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...
. They held offices of all kinds from the army to the civil service, while retaining their direct access to the Emperor. Emperor Constantine I finalized them as the governmental echelon of "''comites provinciarum''" ("Counts of the Provinces"); the ''comites'' of the new echelon were assigned alongside the ''vicarii'' in the civil dioceses of the latter so that the ''comites'' became permanent fixtures of Imperial government. The ''comites'' were fully enumerated as early as the beginning of the AD 5th century in the ''
Notitia Dignitatum The ''Notitia Dignitatum'' (Latin for "The List of Offices") is a document of the late Roman Empire that details the administrative organization of the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire. It is unique as one of very few surviving documents o ...
'', but as offices were later added, it is not historically exhaustive. The following sections describe examples of the kinds of ''comites''.


At court or in the Imperial domains

Several of the major departments of the Imperial ''Curia'' ("Court") and household had a principal official who was styled "''comes''" and assisted by an "'' officium''" ("staff") very similar to that of a
Roman governor A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many Roman province, provinces constituting the Roman Empire. The generic term in Roman legal language was ''Re ...
. They included: *'' comes dispositonum'': A deputy to the very powerful ''
magister officiorum The ''magister officiorum'' (Latin language, Latin literally for "Master of Offices", in gr, μάγιστρος τῶν ὀφφικίων, magistros tōn offikiōn) was one of the most senior administrative officials in the Later Roman Empire and ...
'' (Master of Offices) responsible for organizing the Imperial calendar and preparing the correspondence for distribution to the proper offices for transcription. *'' comes domesticorum'': A '' vir illustris'' who was principal of the '' domestici'', a corps of bodyguards of the Emperor who were stationed in the Imperial Palace. There were two of these comital commanders, the ''comes domesticorum equitum'' for the equestrian knights and the ''comes domesticorum peditum'' for the foot soldiers. *''
comes privatae largitionis ''Comes'' ( ), plural ''comites'' ( ), was a Roman title or office, and the origin Latin form of the medieval and modern title "count". Before becoming a word for various types of title or office, the word originally meant "companion", either i ...
'': The custodian of the privy purse, who answered and was subordinate to the ''comes rerum privatarum'' (see next title). *'' comes rerum privatarum'': A powerful Imperial official responsible for the private estates and holdings of the
Emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...
and his family ("''
res privata Property is a system of rights that gives people legal control of valuable things, and also refers to the valuable things themselves. Depending on the nature of the property, an owner of property may have the right to consume, alter, share, r ...
''"). He maintained the properties and collected the rents, of which most were deposited in the ''
Aerarium Aerarium, from ''aes'' (“bronze, money”) + -''ārium'' (“place for”), was the name given in Ancient Rome to the public treasury, and in a secondary sense to the public finances. ''Aerarium populi Romani'' The main ''aerarium'', that ...
'', i. e., the treasury of the public funds of the State, and some in the ''Fiscus'', i. e., the treasury of privy funds of the Emperor that the ''
comes privatae largitionis ''Comes'' ( ), plural ''comites'' ( ), was a Roman title or office, and the origin Latin form of the medieval and modern title "count". Before becoming a word for various types of title or office, the word originally meant "companion", either i ...
'' administered. *'' comes sacrarum largitionum'': A '' vir illustris'' who was custodian of the ''sacrae largitiones'' ("Sacred Largesses") of the
Emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...
and manager of the Imperial finances. He controlled all of the mints, each managed by a '' procurator''; was the principal of numerous officials, including more ''procuratores'', ''rationales'', and ''praepositi'', who collected senatorial taxes, custom duties, and some land taxes; was responsible for the yields of the mines; provided budgets for the civil service and armies; supplied all uniforms; and was competent for the minor offices of: **''
comes auri ''Comes'' ( ), plural ''comites'' ( ), was a Roman title or office, and the origin Latin form of the medieval and modern title "count". Before becoming a word for various types of title or office, the word originally meant "companion", either i ...
'': The official responsible for gold. **''
comes sacrae vestis ''Protovestiarios'' ( el, πρωτοβεστιάριος, "first ''vestiarios''") was a high Byzantine court position, originally reserved for eunuchs. In the late Byzantine period (12th–15th centuries), it denoted the Empire's senior-most fina ...
'': The master of the wardrobe of the Emperor. **The 3 ''comites largitionum'': The regional financial administrators of
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
,
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
, and Illyricum. **'' comes commerciorum'' for Illyricum. **''comes metallorum per Illyricum'': The official responsible for that region's gold mines. Exceptionally, a gubernatorial position was styled "''comes''". For example, the '' comes Orientis'', actually one of the '' vicarii'', was an official who controlled the large and strategically important Imperial Diocese of the East by supervising the governors of this collection of provinces, but he was in turn supervised by the '' praefectus praetorio Orientis''. Further, the principal officials of some less important governmental departments who were under the authority of otherwise styled, high ranking, territorial officials could be titled "''comes''", e. g. under the ''
praefectus urbi The ''praefectus urbanus'', also called ''praefectus urbi'' or urban prefect in English, was prefect of the city of Rome, and later also of Constantinople. The office originated under the Roman kings, continued during the Republic and Empire, a ...
'' of
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus ( legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
, himself a '' vir illustris'', was a ''comes formarum'', ''comes riparum et alvei Tiberis et Cloacarum'' ("Count of the Coast of the Tiber and the Canalisation"), and ''comes Portus'' ("Count of the Port"). The title "'' comes consistorianus''" or "''comes consistorialis''" indicated specially appointed members to the '' consistorium'', the council of the Roman emperor's closest advisors.


''comes rei militaris''

The ''comes rei militaris'' held martial appointments, and were commanders of .A.H.M Jones, ''The Later Roman Empire, 284–602'' II, p. 1090 They ranked superior to a '' dux'' but inferior to the ''
magister peditum ( Latin for "master of soldiers", plural ) was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great. The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander ...
'' and ''
magister equitum The , in English Master of the Horse or Master of the Cavalry, was a Roman magistrate appointed as lieutenant to a dictator. His nominal function was to serve as commander of the Roman cavalry in time of war, but just as a dictator could be nom ...
''; they were the superiors of a series of military stations, each commanded by a ''praepositus limitis'' ("border commander") and/or unit commanders, e. g., tribunes of cohorts, '' alae'' (auxiliary equivalents), '' numeri'', and in the Eastern Empire even legions. The ''
Notitia Dignitatum The ''Notitia Dignitatum'' (Latin for "The List of Offices") is a document of the late Roman Empire that details the administrative organization of the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire. It is unique as one of very few surviving documents o ...
'' of the early AD 5th century enumerates 6 such offices, being of the dignity of '' vir spectabilis'', in the Western Empire: ''comes Italiae'', ''comes Africae'', ''comes Tingitaniae'', ''comes Tractus Argentoratensis'', and ''comes Britanniarum ad Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam''; and 2 in the Eastern Empire: ''comes (limitis) Aegypti'' and ''comes
Isauria Isauria ( or ; grc, Ἰσαυρία), in ancient geography, is a rugged, isolated, district in the interior of Asia Minor, of very different extent at different periods, but generally covering what is now the district of Bozkır and its surro ...
e''. *''comes Africae'': Official responsible for the defense of Roman Africa. *'' comes tractus Argentoratensis'': Official responsible for the defense of part of Gallia. *'' comes Avernorum'': Official responsible for the defense of the other part of Gallia. *''
comes Britanniarum The (Latin for "Count of the Britains") was a military post in Roman Britain with command over the mobile field army from the mid-4th century onwards. It is listed in the List of Offices as being one of the three commands in Britain, along wit ...
'': Official responsible for the defense of
Britannia Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Grea ...
. This office presumably expired circa AD 410 when the last Roman troops left that province. *'' comes Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam'': Official responsible for the defense of the Saxon shore of
Britannia Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Grea ...
. *''
comes Hispaniarum ''Comes'' ( ), plural ''comites'' ( ), was a Roman title or office, and the origin Latin form of the medieval and modern title "count". Before becoming a word for various types of title or office, the word originally meant "companion", either i ...
'': Official responsible for the defense of
Hispania Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hi ...
. As the number of ''comites'' increased, that dignity was devalued. This caused the introduction of classes of ''comites'', denominated and ranked the first, second, and third "''ordines''".


comites dominorum nostrorum

The ''comites dominorum nostrorum'' (plural of ''Comes D. N.''), (literally "Companions of Our Lords mperors) were a mounted Imperial bodyguard during the
tetrarchy The Tetrarchy was the system instituted by Roman emperor Diocletian in 293 AD to govern the ancient Roman Empire by dividing it between two emperors, the ''augusti'', and their juniors colleagues and designated successors, the '' caesares'' ...
of Emperor Diocletian in circa AD 300.


Medieval adaptations of comital offices


Gothic ''Comites''

The
Goths The Goths ( got, 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰, translit=''Gutþiuda''; la, Gothi, grc-gre, Γότθοι, Gótthoi) were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Euro ...
that ruled
Spain , image_flag = Bandera de España.svg , image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg , national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond") , national_anthem = (English: "Royal March") , ...
and
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
followed the Roman tradition of granting the title of "''Comes''" to the various principals of the departments of their royal households, including but not limited to the: *''Comes Cubiculariorum'': Count in charge of the chamberlains (L. cubicularii). *''Comes Scanciorum'': The Count who commanded the cup bearers. *''Comes Stabulorum'': The Count who commanded the equerries and stables. *''Comes Notariorum'': The Count who commanded the chancery, i. e., the writing office. *''Comes Thesaurorum'': The Count who commanded the officials of the treasury.


Frankish ''Gaugraf''

The Frankish kings of the
Merovingian dynasty The Merovingian dynasty () was the ruling family of the Franks from the middle of the 5th century until 751. They first appear as "Kings of the Franks" in the Roman army of northern Gaul. By 509 they had united all the Franks and northern Gauli ...
retained much of Roman administration, including the office and title of "''comes''", the original meaning of which they preserved, i. e., a companion of the king and a royal servant of high dignity. Under the early Frankish kings some ''comites'' did not have definite functions: they were merely attached to the person of the King and executed his orders. Others filled the highest offices, e. g. the ''Comes Palatii'' and ''Comes Stabuli'' (from which the contemporary title of "
constable A constable is a person holding a particular office, most commonly in criminal law enforcement. The office of constable can vary significantly in different jurisdictions. A constable is commonly the rank of an officer within the police. Other peop ...
" derives). Yet other ''comites'' served as regional officials. For administrative purposes, the Merovingian kingdoms were still divided into small Roman districts denominated "'' pagi''" (hence the French "''pays''"), or similarly sized new creations "''Gaue''". These were smaller than the old Roman ''
civitates In Ancient Rome, the Latin term (; plural ), according to Cicero in the time of the late Roman Republic, was the social body of the , or citizens, united by law (). It is the law that binds them together, giving them responsibilities () on t ...
'' ("cities", or polities) which became the basis of the new medieval bishoprics. In Carolingian times, the governor of a ''pagus'' was a ''Comes'', corresponding to the German ''
Graf (feminine: ) is a historical title of the German nobility, usually translated as " count". Considered to be intermediate among noble ranks, the title is often treated as equivalent to the British title of "earl" (whose female version is " ...
''. The King appointed the ''Comites'' to serve at his pleasure. The modern German-derived term sometimes for a count who governed a whole gau is "''Gaugraf''", and a gau containing several counties is sometimes called a "''Grossgau''". The essential competences of the ''Comes were comprehensive in his ''pagus'': martial, judicial, and executive; and in documents he is often described as the "''agens publicus''" ("public agent") of the King or "''judex publicus/fiscalis''" ("royal judge"). He was at once public prosecutor and judge, and was responsible for the execution of the sentences as well. As the delegate of the executive power, he had the right to exercise the "''bannis regis''" ("royal
ban Ban, or BAN, may refer to: Law * Ban (law), a decree that prohibits something, sometimes a form of censorship, being denied from entering or using the place/item ** Imperial ban (''Reichsacht''), a form of outlawry in the medieval Holy Roman ...
"), which gave him the right to command his military in the name of the King and to act as necessary to preserve the peace. As the King's representative, he exercised the royal right of protection ("''mundium regis''") of churches, widows, orphans, and the like. He enjoyed a triple "'' wergeld''", but had no definite salary, being remunerated by receipt of specific revenues, which system contained the germs of discord, on account of the confusion of his public and private obligations. According to philologists, the
Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxons were a cultural group who inhabited England in the Early Middle Ages. They traced their origins to settlers who came to Britain from mainland Europe in the 5th century. However, the ethnogenesis of the Anglo-Saxons happened wit ...
word "''gerefa''", denoting "illustrious chief", however, is not connected to the German "''Graf''", which originally meant "servant"; compare the etymologies of the words "knight" and "valet". It is the more curious that the "''gerefa''" should end as a subservient ''reeve'' while the "''graf''" became a noble count.


Feudalism

In the feudal tradition,
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
was, especially in law, the official language, and therefore the rendering in Latin was equal in importance to the vernacular title. Thus, "''comes''" has been used as the Latin equivalent, or part of it, of all titles of comital office, whether containing "
count Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York ...
" or some other word etymologically derived from "''comes''" or "''
graf (feminine: ) is a historical title of the German nobility, usually translated as " count". Considered to be intermediate among noble ranks, the title is often treated as equivalent to the British title of "earl" (whose female version is " ...
''". Similarly, it is part of the rendering, not always exclusive, of derived inferior titles containing such words, notably "'' vicecomes''" for "viscount" and "'' burgicomes''" and "''burgravio''" for "burgrave".


See also

*
Aerarium Aerarium, from ''aes'' (“bronze, money”) + -''ārium'' (“place for”), was the name given in Ancient Rome to the public treasury, and in a secondary sense to the public finances. ''Aerarium populi Romani'' The main ''aerarium'', that ...
* Agentes in rebus * Comitatenses * Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary) * Congiarium * Donativum *
Fiscus ''Fiscus'', from which comes the English term "fiscal", was the name of the personal chest of the emperors of Rome. The word is literally translated as "basket" or "purse" and was used to describe those forms of revenue collected from the provinc ...
*
Mund (law) The mund is a principle in Germanic tradition and law that can be crudely translated as "protection" and which grew as the prerogative of a Germanic tribe king or leader. It has been Latinized in ''mundium''. The word comes from Germanic '' *''mu ...
* Rationalis * A rationibus *'' Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft'' * Roman finance


References

* {{Authority control Ancient Roman titles Court titles Military ranks of ancient Rome Roman Empire Economy of ancient Rome