caesares

Caesar ( English  Caesars; Latin  ''Caesares''; in Greek: ''Kaîsar'') is a title of imperial character. It derives from the '' cognomen'' of Julius Caesar, a Roman dictator. The change from being a familial name to a title adopted by the Roman emperors can be traced to AD 68, following the fall of the Julio–Claudian dynasty.

Origins

The first known individual to bear the ''cognomen'' of "Caesar" was Sextus Julius Caesar, who is likewise believed to be the common ancestor of all subsequent Julii Caesares. Sextus' great-grandson was the dictator Gaius Julius Caesar. After he seized control of the Roman Republic following his war against the Senate, he adopted the title of ''dictator perpetuo'' ("dictator in perpetuity"), a title he only held for about a month before he was assassinated in 44 BC. Julius Caesar's death did not lead to the restoration of the Republic, and instead led to the rise of the Second Triumvirate, composed by three dictators including Julius' adopted son Gaius Octavius.

Following Roman naming conventions, Octavius adopted the name of his adoptive father, thus also becoming "Gaius Julius Caesar", though he was often called "Octavianus" to avoid confusion. He usually styled himself simply as "Gaius Caesar" to emphasize his relationship with Julius Caesar. Eventually, distrust and jealousy between the three dictators led to a lengthy civil war which ultimately ended with Octavius gaining control of the entire Roman world in 30 BC. In 27 BC, Octavius was given the honorific ''Augustus'' by the Senate, adopting the name of "Imperator Caesar Augustus". He had previously dropped all his names except for "Caesar", which he treated as a '' nomen'' (surname), and had adopted the title ''imperator'' ("commander") as a new ''praenomen'' (forename).

As a matter of course, Augustus' own adopted son and successor, Tiberius, followed his (step)father's example and bore the name "Caesar" following his adoption on 26 June 4 AD, restyling himself as "Tiberius Julius Caesar". Upon his own ascension to the throne, he styled himself as "Tiberius Caesar Augustus". The precedent was thus then set: the Emperor, styled as "Augustus", designated his successor by adopting him and giving him the name "Caesar".

The fourth Emperor, Claudius (in full "Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus"), was the first to assume the name "Caesar" without having been adopted by the previous emperor; however, he was at least a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, being the maternal great-nephew of Augustus on his mother's side, the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle of Caligula (also called "Gaius Julius Caesar"). Claudius, in turn, adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name "Caesar" in addition to his own ''nomen'', "Claudius", His stepson thus became "Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus".

Dynastic title

The first emperor to assume the position and name simultaneously without any real claim was Servius Sulpicius Galba, who took the imperial throne under the name "Servius Galba Caesar Augustus" following the death of Nero in AD 68. Galba helped solidify "Caesar" as the title of the designated heir by giving it to his own adopted heir, Lucius Licinianus. His reign did not last long, however, and he was soon deposed by Marcus Salvius Otho, who became "Imperator Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus". Otho was then defeated by Aulus Vitellius, who became "Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Imperator Augustus", adopting the victory title "Germanicus" instead of "Caesar". Nevertheless, "Caesar" had become such an integral part of the imperial dignity that its place was immediately restored by Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus), who ended the civil war and established the Flavian dynasty in AD 69, ruling under the name "Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus".

The placement of the name "Caesar" varied among the early emperors. It usually came right before the ''cognomen'' (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Trajan, Hadrian); a few placed it right after it ( Galba, Otho, Nerva). The imperial formula was finally standardised during the reign of Antoninus Pius. Antoninus, born "Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Antoninus", became "Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus" after his adoption but ruled as "Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus (Pius)". The imperial formula thus became "''Imperator Caesar'' ame''Augustus''" for emperors. Heir-apparents added "Caesar" to their names, placing it right after their '' cognomen''. They occasionally were given the honorific ''Princeps iuventutis'' ("First among the Youth") and were also addressed as ''Nobilissimus Caesar'' ("Most Noble Caesar").

Later developments

Crisis of the Third Century

The popularity of using the title ''caesar'' to designate heirs-apparent increased throughout the third century. Many of the soldier-emperors during the Crisis of the Third Century attempted to strengthen their legitimacy by naming heirs, including Maximinus Thrax, Philip the Arab, Decius, Trebonianus Gallus and Gallienus. Some of these were promoted to the rank of ''augustus'' within their father's lifetime, for example Philip II. The same title would also be used in the Gallic Empire, which operated autonomously from the rest of the Roman Empire from 260 to 274, with the final Gallic emperor Tetricus I appointing his heir Tetricus II as ''caesar'' and his consular colleague.

Despite the best efforts of these emperors, however, the granting of this title does not seem to have made succession in this chaotic period any more stable. Almost all ''caesares'' would be killed before, or alongside, their fathers, or, at best, outlive them for a matter of months, as in the case of Hostilian. The sole ''caesar'' to successfully obtain the rank of ''augustus'' and rule for some time in his own right was Gordian III, and even he was heavily controlled by his court.

Tetrarchy and Diarchy

On 1 March 293, Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, a system of rule by two senior emperors and two junior colleagues. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, as ''Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Felix Invictus Augustus'' (Elagabalus had introduced the use of ''Pius Felix'', "Pious and Blessed", while Maximinus Thrax introduced ''Invictus'', "Unconquered") and were called the ''augusti''. The two junior colleagues were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, as ''nobilissimus caesar''. Likewise, the junior colleagues retained the title ''caesar'' upon becoming full emperors.

The Tetrarchy collapsed as soon as Diocletian stepped down in 305, as emperors Constantine I and Maxentius fought to establish their own imperial dynasty. This system was abandoned (though the four quarters of the empire survived as praetorian prefectures) in favour of two equal, territorial emperors, one in the Latin-speaking West and other in the Greek-speaking East.

The title remained in use throughout the Constantinian period, with both Constantine I and his co-emperor and rival Licinius utilising it to mark their heirs. Constantine had four ''caesares'' at the time of his death: his sons Constantius II, Constantine II, Constans and his nephew Dalmatius, with his eldest son Crispus having been executed in mysterious circumstances earlier in his reign. He would be succeeded only by his three sons, with Dalmatius dying in the summer of 337 in similarly murky circumstances.

Constantius II himself would nominate as ''caesares'' his cousins Constantius Gallus and Julian in succession in the 350s, although he first executed Gallus and then found himself at war with Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 361, the title fell out of imperial fashion for some time, with emperors preferring simply to elevate their sons directly to ''augustus'', as with Gratian. It would be revived nearly three-quarters of a century later when Theodosius II gave it to his nephew Valentinian III before successfully installing him upon the western throne. Thereafter it would receive limited use in the Eastern Empire, for example, it was used in the designation of the future Leo II in the final months of his grandfather's life.

Byzantine Empire

''Caesar'' or ''Kaisar'' () remained a senior court title in the Eastern or Byzantine Empire. Originally, as in the classical Roman Empire, it was used for the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. From the reign of Theodosius I, however, most emperors chose to solidify the succession of their intended heirs by raising them to co-emperors. Hence the title was more frequently awarded to second- and third-born sons, or to close and influential relatives of the Emperor: for example, Alexios Mosele who was the son-in-law of Theophilos (ruled 829–842), Bardas who was the uncle and chief minister of Michael III (r. 842–867), and Nikephoros II (r. 963–969) who awarded the title to his father, Bardas Phokas. An exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to the Bulgarian khan Tervel by Justinian II (r. 685–695, 705–711) who had helped him regain his throne in 705. The title was awarded to the brother of Empress Maria of Alania, George II of Georgia in 1081.

The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When Alexios I Komnenos created the title of ''sebastokrator'', ''kaisar'' became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I Komnenos created the title of '' despot'', which it remained until the end of the Empire. The feminine form was ''kaisarissa''. It remained an office of great importance, usually awarded to imperial relations, as well as a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and only rarely awarded to foreigners.

According to the '' Klētorologion'' of 899, the Byzantine ''caesar''s insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of a ''caesar''s creation (in this case dating to Constantine V), is included in ''De Ceremoniis'' I.43. The title remained the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the introduction of the ''sebastokratōr'' (a composite derived from ''sebastos'' and ''autokrator'', the Greek equivalents of ''augustus'' and ''imperator'') by Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) and later of '' despotēs'' by Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180). The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire. In the Palaiologan period, it was held by prominent nobles such as Alexios Strategopoulos, but from the 14th century, it was mostly awarded to rulers of the Balkans such as the princes of Vlachia, Serbia and Thessaly.

In the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th century ''Book of Offices'' of pseudo-Kodinos, the rank continued to come after the ''sebastokratōr''. Pseudo-Kodinos further records that the ''caesar'' was equal in precedence to the ''panhypersebastos'', another creation of Alexios I, but that Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282) had raised his nephew Michael Tarchaneiotes to the rank of ''protovestiarios'' and decreed that to come after the ''caesar''; while under Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) the ''megas domestikos'' was raised to the same eminence, when it was awarded to the future emperor John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354). According to pseudo-Kodinos, the ''caesar''s insignia under the Palaiologoi were a ''skiadion'' hat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name and pendants identical to those of the ''despotēs'' and the ''sebastokratōr''. He wore a red tunic (''rouchon'') similar to the emperor's (without certain decorations), and his shoes and stockings were blue, as were the accouterments of his horse; these were all identical to those of the ''sebastokratōr'', but without the embroidered eagles of the latter. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the particular forms of another form of hat, the domed ''skaranikon'', and of the mantle, the ''tamparion'', for the ''caesar'' were not known.

Ottoman Empire

"Caesar" is the title officially used by the Sasanid Persians to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors. In the Middle East, the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as "Caesar" (in fa, قیصر روم ''Qaysar-i Rum'', "Caesar of the Romans", from Middle Persian ''kēsar''). Thus, following the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the victorious Ottoman sultan Mehmed II became the first of the rulers of the Ottoman Empire to assume the title (in ota, قیصر روم ''Kayser-i Rûm'').

After the Fall of Constantinople, having conquered the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed took the title ''Kayser-i Rûm'', claiming succession to the Roman imperium. His claim was that, by possession of the city, he was emperor, a new dynast by conquest, as had been done previously by the likes of Heraclius and Leo III. Contemporary scholar George of Trebizond wrote "the seat of the Roman Empire is Constantinople ... and he who is and remains Emperor of the Romans is also the Emperor of the whole world".

Gennadius II, a staunch antagonist of the West because of the Sack of Constantinople committed by the Western Catholics and theological controversies between the two Churches, had been enthroned the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople-New Rome with all the ceremonial elements and ethnarch (or ''milletbashi'') status by the Sultan himself in 1454. In turn, Gennadius II formally recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne. Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, Sultan Orhan I had married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent from John Tzelepes Komnenos. Ottoman sultans were not the only rulers to claim such a title, as there was the Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, whose emperor, Frederick III, traced his titular lineage from Charlemagne who obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned by Pope Leo III in 800, although he was never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire.

In diplomatic writings between the Ottomans and Austrians, the Ottoman bureaucracy was angered by their use of the Caesar title when the Ottomans saw themself as the true successors of Rome. When war broke out and peace negotiations were done, the Austrians (Holy Roman Empire) agreed to give up the use of the Caesar title according to Treaty of Constantinople (1533) (though they would continue to use it and the Roman imperial title until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806). The Russians, who defined Moscow as the Third Rome, were similarly sanctioned by the Ottomans, who ordered the Crimean Khanate to raid Russia on numerous occasions. The Ottomans would lose their political superiority over the Holy Roman Empire with the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606, and over the Russian Empire with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774, by diplomatically recognising the monarchs of these two countries as equals to the Ottoman Sultan for the first time.

List of holders

;Byzantine nobles
*Tervel, khan of the Bulgars, named in 705 by Justinian II
* Nikephoros & Christopher, named on 2 April 769 by their father Constantine V J. R. Martindale (2001),
Nikephoros 5
. '' Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire''.
* Alexios Mosele, likely named in 831 by his father-in-law Theophilos
*Bardas, named on 22 April 862 by his nephew Michael III
*Romanos I Lekapenos, named on 24 September 920 by the Byzantine senate
* Bardas Phokas, named in late 963 by his son Nikephoros II
*Romanos III Argyros, named on 9 November 1028 by Constantine VIII
*Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger, named by his father-in-law Alexios I
* John Doukas, named in 1074 by his brother Constantine X
*George II of Georgia, named in 1081 by his brother-in-law Nikephoros III
*Nikephoros Melissenos, named in 1080 by Alexios I
* Isaac Komnenos, named in 1104 by his father Alexios I
*John Rogerios Dalassenos, named 1130 by his father-in-law John II
*Renier of Montferrat, named in 1180 by his father-in-law Manuel I
*John Kantakouzenos, named in 1186 by Isaac II
*Conrad of Montferrat, named in 1187 by his father-in-law Isaac II
* Manuel Maurozomes, named 1200 by Alexios III
*Leo Gabalas, named by Theodore I Laskaris (r. 1205–1221)
* Constantine Palaiologos, named in 1259 by his brother Michael VIII
*Alexios Strategopoulos, named in 1259 by Michael VIII
*Roger de Flor, leader of the Catalan Company, named in 1304 by Andronikos II
* John Palaiologos, named in 1326 by his uncle Andronikos II
*Hrelja, likely named by John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354)

;Serbian rulers
* Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos, named in 1373 by despot Thomas Preljubović
* Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos, named in 1390 by despot Esau de' Buondelmonti
*Grgur Golubić, named in 1347 by Stefan Uroš IV Dušan
*Vojihna, named in 1347 by Uroš IV
*Preljub, named in 1348–9 by Uroš IV
*Uglješa Vlatković, named by Uroš V
*Nikola Radonja, named by Uroš V
* Novak, named by Uroš V

;Ottoman rulers
*Mehmed II, assumed title in 1453 ('' Kayser-i Rûm'')
*Bayezid II, inherited from predecessor
* Selim I, inherited from predecessor
* Suleiman I, inherited from predecessor
*Selim II, inherited from predecessor
*Murad III, inherited from predecessor
*Mehmed III, inherited from predecessor
*Ahmed I, inherited from predecessor
*Mustafa I, inherited from predecessor
*Osman II, inherited from predecessor
*Murad IV, inherited from predecessor
* Ibrahim, inherited from predecessor
*Mehmed IV, inherited from predecessor

Legacy

Title (and name)

The history of "Caesar" as an imperial title is reflected by the following monarchic titles, usually reserved for "emperor" and "empress" in many languages (note that the name Caesar, pronounced in English, was pronounced in Classical Latin):

Afro-Asiatic languages:
* Arabic: Qays'r قصر;قيصر Qas'r
* he, Kesár קיסר (male) and Kesarít קיסרית (female);

Albanian:
* sq, Çezar and Qesarinë;

Armenian:
* hy, կայսր ''Kaysr'', and hy, կայսրություն ''Kaysrutiun'' meaning ''empire'';

Greek:
* Modern Greek: el, Καίσαρας (''Kaisaras''), the archaic form el, Καίσαρ is rarely used today;

Austronesian languages:
* Bahasa Indonesia: Kaisar;

Baltic languages:
* lv, Ķeizars and Ķeizariene;

Germanic languages:
* da, Kejser and Kejserinde;
* nl, Keizer and Keizerin;
* german: Kaiser and Kaiserin;
* is, Keisari and Keisaraynja;
* fo, Keisari and Keisarinna;
* no, Keiser and Keiserinne (bokmål) / Keisar and Keisarinne (nynorsk);
* sv, Kejsare and Kejsarinna
* Old English: cāsere

Indo-Iranian languages:
* fa, Ghaysar قيصر
* Urdu

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