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Caesar ( English  Caesars;
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
 ''Caesares''; in Greek: ''Kaîsar'') is a
title A title is one or more words used before or after a person's name, in certain contexts. It may signify either generation, an official position, or a professional or academic qualification. In some languages, titles may be inserted between the f ...
of imperial character. It derives from the ''
cognomen A ''cognomen'' (; plural ''cognomina''; from ''con-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became here ...
'' of
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
, a
Roman dictator A Roman dictator was an extraordinary magistrate in the Roman Republic endowed with full authority to resolve some specific problem to which he had been assigned. He received the full powers of the state, subordinating the other magistrates, con ...
. The change from being a familial name to a title adopted by the Roman emperors can be traced to AD 68, following the fall of the Julio–Claudian dynasty.


Origins

The first known individual to bear the ''cognomen'' of "Caesar" was Sextus Julius Caesar, who is likewise believed to be the common ancestor of all subsequent
Julii Caesares The Julii Caesares were the most illustrious family of the patrician ''gens Julia''. The family first appears in history during the Second Punic War, when Sextus Julius Caesar was praetor in Sicily. His son, Sextus Julius Caesar, obtained t ...
. Sextus' great-grandson was the dictator
Gaius Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
. After he seized control of the
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...
following his
war War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular o ...
against the Senate, he adopted the title of ''
dictator perpetuo ''Dictator perpetuo'' (English: "dictator in perpetuity"), also called ''dictator in perpetuum'', was the office held by Julius Caesar from between 26 January and 15 February during the year 44 BCE until his death on 15 March. By abandoning the t ...
'' ("dictator in perpetuity"), a title he only held for about a month before he was assassinated in 44 BC. Julius Caesar's death did not lead to the restoration of the Republic, and instead led to the rise of the Second Triumvirate, composed by three dictators including Julius' adopted son Gaius Octavius. Following
Roman naming conventions Over the course of some fourteen centuries, the Romans and other peoples of Italy employed a system of nomenclature that differed from that used by other cultures of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea, consisting of a combination of personal and fam ...
, Octavius adopted the name of his adoptive father, thus also becoming "Gaius Julius Caesar", though he was often called "Octavianus" to avoid confusion. He usually styled himself simply as "Gaius Caesar" to emphasize his relationship with Julius Caesar. Eventually, distrust and jealousy between the three dictators led to a lengthy civil war which ultimately ended with Octavius gaining control of the entire Roman world in 30 BC. In 27 BC, Octavius was given the honorific ''
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
'' by the Senate, adopting the name of "Imperator Caesar Augustus". He had previously dropped all his names except for "Caesar", which he treated as a '' nomen'' (surname), and had adopted the title '' imperator'' ("commander") as a new '' praenomen'' (forename). As a matter of course, Augustus' own adopted son and successor,
Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
, followed his (step)father's example and bore the name "Caesar" following his adoption on 26 June 4 AD, restyling himself as "Tiberius Julius Caesar". Upon his own ascension to the throne, he styled himself as "Tiberius Caesar Augustus". The precedent was thus then set: the Emperor, styled as "Augustus", designated his successor by adopting him and giving him the name "Caesar". The fourth Emperor, Claudius (in full "Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus"), was the first to assume the name "Caesar" without having been adopted by the previous emperor; however, he was at least a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, being the maternal great-nephew of Augustus on
his mother ''His Mother'' is a 1912 American silent film produced by Kalem Company. It was directed by Sidney Olcott with Gene Gauntier and Jack J. Clark in the leading roles. It was one of more than a dozen films produced by the Kalem Company filmed in Ir ...
's side, the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle of Caligula (also called "Gaius Julius Caesar"). Claudius, in turn, adopted his stepson and grand-nephew Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, giving him the name "Caesar" in addition to his own ''nomen'', "Claudius", His stepson thus became "
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 unti ...
Claudius Caesar Augustus".


Dynastic title

The first emperor to assume the position and name simultaneously without any real claim was Servius Sulpicius Galba, who took the imperial throne under the name "Servius Galba Caesar Augustus" following the death of Nero in AD 68. Galba helped solidify "Caesar" as the title of the designated heir by giving it to his own adopted heir, Lucius Licinianus. His reign did not last long, however, and he was soon deposed by Marcus Salvius
Otho Marcus Otho (; born Marcus Salvius Otho; 28 April 32 – 16 April 69) was the seventh Roman emperor, ruling for three months from 15 January to 16 April 69. He was the second emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors. A member of a noble Etr ...
, who became "Imperator Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus". Otho was then defeated by Aulus
Vitellius Aulus Vitellius (; ; 24 September 1520 December 69) was Roman emperor for eight months, from 19 April to 20 December AD 69. Vitellius was proclaimed emperor following the quick succession of the previous emperors Galba and Otho, in a year of ci ...
, who became "Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Imperator Augustus", adopting the victory title "Germanicus" instead of "Caesar". Nevertheless, "Caesar" had become such an integral part of the imperial dignity that its place was immediately restored by
Vespasian Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empi ...
(Titus Flavius Vespasianus), who ended the civil war and established the
Flavian dynasty The Flavian dynasty ruled the Roman Empire between AD 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69–79), and his two sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69, known ...
in AD 69, ruling under the name "Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus". The placement of the name "Caesar" varied among the early emperors. It usually came right before the ''cognomen'' (
Vespasian Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empi ...
,
Titus Titus Caesar Vespasianus ( ; 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 AD) was Roman emperor from 79 to 81. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death. Before becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a mili ...
,
Domitian Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Fl ...
,
Trajan Trajan ( ; la, Caesar Nerva Traianus; 18 September 539/11 August 117) was Roman emperor from 98 to 117. Officially declared ''optimus princeps'' ("best ruler") by the senate, Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presi ...
, Hadrian); a few placed it right after it ( Galba,
Otho Marcus Otho (; born Marcus Salvius Otho; 28 April 32 – 16 April 69) was the seventh Roman emperor, ruling for three months from 15 January to 16 April 69. He was the second emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors. A member of a noble Etr ...
, Nerva). The imperial formula was finally standardised during the reign of
Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius ( Latin: ''Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius''; 19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Born into a senatori ...
. Antoninus, born "Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Antoninus", became "Titus Aelius Caesar Antoninus" after his adoption but ruled as "Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus (Pius)". The imperial formula thus became "''Imperator Caesar'' ame''Augustus''" for emperors. Heir-apparents added "Caesar" to their names, placing it right after their ''
cognomen A ''cognomen'' (; plural ''cognomina''; from ''con-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became here ...
''. They occasionally were given the honorific '' Princeps iuventutis'' ("First among the Youth") and were also addressed as ''
Nobilissimus ''Nobilissimus'' (Latin for "most noble"), in Byzantine Greek ''nōbelissimos'' (Greek: νωβελίσσιμος),. was one of the highest imperial titles in the late Roman and Byzantine empires. The feminine form of the title was ''nobilissima ...
Caesar'' ("Most Noble Caesar").


Later developments


Crisis of the Third Century

The popularity of using the title ''caesar'' to designate heirs-apparent increased throughout the third century. Many of the soldier-emperors during the
Crisis of the Third Century The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis (AD 235–284), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed. The crisis ended due to the military victories of Aurelian and with the ascensio ...
attempted to strengthen their legitimacy by naming heirs, including Maximinus Thrax,
Philip the Arab Philip the Arab ( la, Marcus Julius Philippus "Arabs"; 204 – September 249) was Roman emperor from 244 to 249. He was born in Aurantis, Arabia, in a city situated in modern-day Syria. After the death of Gordian III in February 244, Philip, ...
,
Decius Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius ( 201 ADJune 251 AD), sometimes translated as Trajan Decius or Decius, was the emperor of the Roman Empire from 249 to 251. A distinguished politician during the reign of Philip the Arab, Decius was procl ...
,
Trebonianus Gallus Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus (206 – August 253) was Roman emperor from June 251 to August 253, in a joint rule with his son Volusianus. Early life Gallus was born in Italy, in a family with respected Etruscan senatorial background. He h ...
and
Gallienus Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (; c. 218 – September 268) was Roman emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260 and alone from 260 to 268. He ruled during the Crisis of the Third Century that nearly caused the collapse of the empi ...
. Some of these were promoted to the rank of ''
augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
'' within their father's lifetime, for example
Philip II Philip II may refer to: * Philip II of Macedon (382–336 BC) * Philip II (emperor) (238–249), Roman emperor * Philip II, Prince of Taranto (1329–1374) * Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (1342–1404) * Philip II, Duke of Savoy (1438-1497) * Philip ...
. The same title would also be used in the Gallic Empire, which operated autonomously from the rest of the Roman Empire from 260 to 274, with the final Gallic emperor
Tetricus I Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus was the emperor of the Gallic Empire from 271 to 274 AD. He was originally the (governor) of Gallia Aquitania and became emperor after the murder of Emperor Victorinus in 271, with the support of Victorinus's mother, ...
appointing his heir Tetricus II as ''caesar'' and his consular colleague. Despite the best efforts of these emperors, however, the granting of this title does not seem to have made succession in this chaotic period any more stable. Almost all ''caesares'' would be killed before, or alongside, their fathers, or, at best, outlive them for a matter of months, as in the case of
Hostilian Hostilian ( la, Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus; died 251) was briefly Roman emperor in 251. Hostilian was born to Decius and Herennia Etruscilla at an unknown date and elevated to Caesar (title), ''caesar'' in 250 by Decius. After De ...
. The sole ''caesar'' to successfully obtain the rank of ''augustus'' and rule for some time in his own right was Gordian III, and even he was heavily controlled by his court.


Tetrarchy and Diarchy

On 1 March 293, Diocletian established the
Tetrarchy The Tetrarchy was the system instituted by Roman emperor Diocletian in 293 AD to govern the ancient Roman Empire by dividing it between two emperors, the ''augusti'', and their juniors colleagues and designated successors, the '' caesares'' ...
, a system of rule by two senior emperors and two junior colleagues. The two coequal senior emperors were styled identically to previous Emperors, as ''Imperator Caesar NN. Pius Felix Invictus Augustus'' (
Elagabalus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (born Sextus Varius Avitus Bassianus, 204 – 11/12 March 222), better known by his nickname "Elagabalus" (, ), was Roman emperor from 218 to 222, while he was still a teenager. His short reign was conspicuous for s ...
had introduced the use of ''Pius Felix'', "Pious and Blessed", while Maximinus Thrax introduced ''Invictus'', "Unconquered") and were called the ''augusti''. The two junior colleagues were styled identically to previous Emperors-designate, as ''nobilissimus caesar''. Likewise, the junior colleagues retained the title ''caesar'' upon becoming full emperors. The Tetrarchy collapsed as soon as Diocletian stepped down in 305, as emperors
Constantine I Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to Constantine the Great and Christianity, convert to Christiani ...
and Maxentius fought to establish their own imperial dynasty. This system was abandoned (though the four quarters of the empire survived as praetorian prefectures) in favour of two equal, territorial emperors, one in the
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
-speaking West and other in the
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
-speaking East. The title remained in use throughout the Constantinian period, with both Constantine I and his co-emperor and rival
Licinius Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c. 265 – 325) was Roman emperor from 308 to 324. For most of his reign he was the colleague and rival of Constantine I, with whom he co-authored the Edict of Milan, AD 313, that granted official toleration to C ...
utilising it to mark their heirs. Constantine had four ''caesares'' at the time of his death: his sons
Constantius II Constantius II (Latin: ''Flavius Julius Constantius''; grc-gre, Κωνστάντιος; 7 August 317 – 3 November 361) was Roman emperor from 337 to 361. His reign saw constant warfare on the borders against the Sasanian Empire and Germanic ...
, Constantine II,
Constans Flavius Julius Constans ( 323 – 350), sometimes called Constans I, was Roman emperor from 337 to 350. He held the imperial rank of '' caesar'' from 333, and was the youngest son of Constantine the Great. After his father's death, he was mad ...
and his nephew
Dalmatius :''This article deals with the Caesar (335-337). For the censor Flavius Dalmatius, father of the caesar, see Flavius Dalmatius. For saints with this name, see Saint Dalmatius (disambiguation).'' Flavius Dalmatius Caesar (his name is often spell ...
, with his eldest son Crispus having been executed in mysterious circumstances earlier in his reign. He would be succeeded only by his three sons, with Dalmatius dying in the summer of 337 in similarly murky circumstances. Constantius II himself would nominate as ''caesares'' his cousins
Constantius Gallus Flavius Claudius Constantius Gallus (326–354) was a statesman and ruler in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire from 351 to 354, as ''Caesar'' under emperor Constantius II (), his cousin. A grandson of emperor Constantius Chlorus () and ...
and Julian in succession in the 350s, although he first executed Gallus and then found himself at war with Julian before his own death. After Julian's revolt of 361, the title fell out of imperial fashion for some time, with emperors preferring simply to elevate their sons directly to ''augustus'', as with
Gratian Gratian (; la, Gratianus; 18 April 359 – 25 August 383) was emperor of the Western Roman Empire from 367 to 383. The eldest son of Valentinian I, Gratian accompanied his father on several campaigns along the Rhine and Danube frontiers and w ...
. It would be revived nearly three-quarters of a century later when
Theodosius II Theodosius II ( grc-gre, Θεοδόσιος, Theodosios; 10 April 401 – 28 July 450) was Roman emperor for most of his life, proclaimed ''augustus'' as an infant in 402 and ruling as the eastern Empire's sole emperor after the death of his ...
gave it to his nephew
Valentinian III Valentinian III ( la, Placidus Valentinianus; 2 July 41916 March 455) was Roman emperor in the West from 425 to 455. Made emperor in childhood, his reign over the Roman Empire was one of the longest, but was dominated by powerful generals vying ...
before successfully installing him upon the western throne. Thereafter it would receive limited use in the Eastern Empire, for example, it was used in the designation of the future Leo II in the final months of his grandfather's life.


Byzantine Empire

''Caesar'' or ''Kaisar'' () remained a senior court title in the Eastern or
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
. Originally, as in the classical
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediter ...
, it was used for the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. From the reign of
Theodosius I Theodosius I ( grc-gre, Θεοδόσιος ; 11 January 347 – 17 January 395), also called Theodosius the Great, was Roman emperor from 379 to 395. During his reign, he succeeded in a crucial war against the Goths, as well as in two ...
, however, most emperors chose to solidify the succession of their intended heirs by raising them to co-emperors. Hence the title was more frequently awarded to second- and third-born sons, or to close and influential relatives of the Emperor: for example, Alexios Mosele who was the son-in-law of Theophilos (ruled 829–842), Bardas who was the uncle and chief minister of Michael III (r. 842–867), and Nikephoros II (r. 963–969) who awarded the title to his father, Bardas Phokas. An exceptional case was the conferment of the dignity and its insignia to the Bulgarian khan
Tervel Khan Tervel ( bg, Тервел) also called ''Tarvel'', or ''Terval'', or ''Terbelis'' in some Byzantine sources, was the khan of Bulgaria during the First Bulgarian Empire at the beginning of the 8th century. In 705 Emperor Justinian II named ...
by
Justinian II Justinian II ( la, Iustinianus; gr, Ἰουστινιανός, Ioustinianós; 668/69 – 4 November 711), nicknamed "the Slit-Nosed" ( la, Rhinotmetus; gr, ὁ Ῥινότμητος, ho Rhinótmētos), was the last Eastern Roman emperor of the ...
(r. 685–695, 705–711) who had helped him regain his throne in 705. The title was awarded to the brother of Empress
Maria of Alania Maria of Alania (born Martha; ka, მართა; 1053–1118) was Byzantine empress by marriages to emperors Michael VII Doukas and Nikephoros III Botaneiates. Her status as empress was considered a significant success for a newly unified Ki ...
,
George II of Georgia :''There was also a Giorgi II, Catholicos of Kartli who ruled in 826–838.'' George II ( ka, გიორგი II, ''Giorgi II'') ( 1054 – 1112), of the Bagrationi Dynasty, was a king of Georgia from 1072 to 1089. He was a son and successor ...
in 1081. The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When
Alexios I Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos ( grc-gre, Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός, 1057 – 15 August 1118; Latinized Alexius I Comnenus) was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. Although he was not the first emperor of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during ...
created the title of ''
sebastokrator ''Sebastokrator'' ( grc-byz, Σεβαστοκράτωρ, Sevastokrátor, August Ruler, ; bg, севастократор, sevastokrator; sh, sebastokrator), was a senior court title in the late Byzantine Empire. It was also used by other rulers wh ...
'', ''kaisar'' became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I Komnenos created the title of '' despot'', which it remained until the end of the Empire. The feminine form was ''kaisarissa''. It remained an office of great importance, usually awarded to imperial relations, as well as a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and only rarely awarded to foreigners. According to the '' Klētorologion'' of 899, the Byzantine ''caesar''s insignia were a crown without a cross, and the ceremony of a ''caesar''s creation (in this case dating to
Constantine V Constantine V ( grc-gre, Κωνσταντῖνος, Kōnstantīnos; la, Constantinus; July 718 – 14 September 775), was Byzantine emperor from 741 to 775. His reign saw a consolidation of Byzantine security from external threats. As an able ...
), is included in '' De Ceremoniis'' I.43. The title remained the highest in the imperial hierarchy until the introduction of the '' sebastokratōr'' (a composite derived from ''
sebastos ( grc-gre, σεβαστός, sebastós, venerable one, Augustus, ; plural , ) was an honorific used by the ancient Greeks to render the Roman imperial title of . The female form of the title was (). It was revived as an honorific in the 11th-ce ...
'' and '' autokrator'', the Greek equivalents of ''
augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
'' and '' imperator'') by
Alexios I Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos ( grc-gre, Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός, 1057 – 15 August 1118; Latinized Alexius I Comnenus) was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. Although he was not the first emperor of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during ...
(r. 1081–1118) and later of '' despotēs'' by Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180). The title remained in existence through the last centuries of the Empire. In the
Palaiologan period The Byzantine Empire was ruled by the Palaiologos dynasty in the period between 1261 and 1453, from the restoration of Byzantine rule to Constantinople by the usurper Michael VIII Palaiologos following its recapture from the Latin Empire, founde ...
, it was held by prominent nobles such as
Alexios Strategopoulos Alexios Komnenos Strategopoulos ( gr, Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνὸς Στρατηγόπουλος) was a Byzantine aristocrat and general who rose to the rank of '' megas domestikos'' and ''Caesar''. Distantly related to the Komnenian dynasty ...
, but from the 14th century, it was mostly awarded to rulers of the
Balkans The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
such as the princes of Vlachia,
Serbia Serbia (, ; Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Basin and the Balkans. It shares land borders with Hungar ...
and
Thessaly Thessaly ( el, Θεσσαλία, translit=Thessalía, ; ancient Thessalian: , ) is a traditional geographic and modern administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, The ...
. In the late Byzantine hierarchy, as recorded in the mid-14th century ''Book of Offices'' of
pseudo-Kodinos George Kodinos or Codinus ( el, Γεώργιος Κωδινός), also Pseudo-Kodinos, ''kouropalates'' in the Byzantine court, is the reputed 14th-century author of three extant works in late Byzantine literature. Their attribution to him is mere ...
, the rank continued to come after the ''sebastokratōr''. Pseudo-Kodinos further records that the ''caesar'' was equal in precedence to the '' panhypersebastos'', another creation of Alexios I, but that Emperor
Michael VIII Palaiologos Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( el, Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος, Mikhaēl Doukas Angelos Komnēnos Palaiologos; 1224 – 11 December 1282) reigned as the co-emperor of the Empire ...
(r. 1259–1282) had raised his nephew Michael Tarchaneiotes to the rank of ''
protovestiarios ''Protovestiarios'' ( el, πρωτοβεστιάριος, "first ''vestiarios''") was a high Byzantine court position, originally reserved for eunuchs. In the late Byzantine period (12th–15th centuries), it denoted the Empire's senior-most fina ...
'' and decreed that to come after the ''caesar''; while under Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) the ''
megas domestikos The title of grand domestic ( grc-gre, μέγας δομέστικος, ''mégas doméstikos'') was given in the 11th–15th centuries to the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army, directly below the Byzantine Emperor. It evolved from the earl ...
'' was raised to the same eminence, when it was awarded to the future emperor
John VI Kantakouzenos John VI Kantakouzenos or Cantacuzene ( el, , ''Iōánnēs Ángelos Palaiológos Kantakouzēnós''; la, Johannes Cantacuzenus;  – 15 June 1383) was a Byzantine Greek nobleman, statesman, and general. He served as grand domestic under ...
(r. 1347–1354). According to pseudo-Kodinos, the ''caesar''s insignia under the Palaiologoi were a ''skiadion'' hat in red and gold, decorated with gold-wire embroideries, with a veil bearing the wearer's name and pendants identical to those of the ''despotēs'' and the ''sebastokratōr''. He wore a red tunic (''rouchon'') similar to the emperor's (without certain decorations), and his shoes and stockings were blue, as were the accouterments of his horse; these were all identical to those of the ''sebastokratōr'', but without the embroidered eagles of the latter. Pseudo-Kodinos writes that the particular forms of another form of hat, the domed ''skaranikon'', and of the mantle, the ''tamparion'', for the ''caesar'' were not known.


Ottoman Empire

"Caesar" is the title officially used by the Sasanid Persians to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors. In the
Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
, the Persians and the Arabs continued to refer to the Roman and Byzantine emperors as "Caesar" (in fa, قیصر روم ''Qaysar-i Rum'', "Caesar of the Romans", from
Middle Persian Middle Persian or Pahlavi, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg () in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasanian Empire. For some time after the Sasanian collapse, Middle ...
''kēsar''). Thus, following the
conquest of Constantinople The Fall of Constantinople, also known as the Conquest of Constantinople, was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire. The city fell on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 53-day siege which had begun o ...
in 1453, the victorious Ottoman sultan Mehmed II became the first of the rulers of the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
to assume the title (in ota, قیصر روم ''Kayser-i Rûm''). After the Fall of Constantinople, having conquered the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed took the title ''Kayser-i Rûm'', claiming succession to the Roman imperium. His claim was that, by possession of the city, he was emperor, a new dynast by conquest, as had been done previously by the likes of Heraclius and Leo III. Contemporary scholar
George of Trebizond George of Trebizond ( el, Γεώργιος Τραπεζούντιος; 1395–1486) was a Byzantine Greek philosopher, scholar, and humanist. Life He was born on the Greek island of Crete (then a Venetian colony known as the Kingdom of Candia), a ...
wrote "the seat of the Roman Empire is Constantinople ... and he who is and remains Emperor of the Romans is also the Emperor of the whole world".
Gennadius II Gennadius II (Greek Γεννάδιος Βʹ; lay name Γεώργιος Κουρτέσιος Σχολάριος, ''Georgios Kourtesios Scholarios''; c. 1400 – c. 1473) was a Byzantine Greek philosopher and theologian, and Ecumenical Patriarch ...
, a staunch antagonist of the West because of the
Sack of Constantinople The sack of Constantinople occurred in April 1204 and marked the culmination of the Fourth Crusade. Crusader armies captured, looted, and destroyed parts of Constantinople, then the capital of the Byzantine Empire. After the capture of the ...
committed by the Western Catholics and theological controversies between the two Churches, had been enthroned the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople-New Rome with all the ceremonial elements and
ethnarch Ethnarch (pronounced , also ethnarches, el, ) is a term that refers generally to political leadership over a common ethnic group or homogeneous kingdom. The word is derived from the Greek words ('' ethnos'', "tribe/nation") and (''archon'', " ...
(or ''milletbashi'') status by the Sultan himself in 1454. In turn, Gennadius II formally recognized Mehmed as successor to the throne. Mehmed also had a blood lineage to the Byzantine Imperial family; his predecessor, Sultan
Orhan I Orhan Ghazi ( ota, اورخان غازی; tr, Orhan Gazi, also spelled Orkhan, 1281 – March 1362) was the second bey of the Ottoman Beylik from 1323/4 to 1362. He was born in Söğüt, as the son of Osman I. In the early stages of his r ...
had married a Byzantine princess, and Mehmed may have claimed descent from John Tzelepes Komnenos. Ottoman sultans were not the only rulers to claim such a title, as there was the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...
in Western Europe, whose emperor, Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick III, traced his titular lineage from Charlemagne who obtained the title of Roman Emperor when he was crowned by Pope Leo III in 800, although he was never recognized as such by the Byzantine Empire. In diplomatic writings between the Ottomans and Austrians, the Ottoman bureaucracy was angered by their use of the Caesar title when the Ottomans saw themself as the true successors of Roman Empire, Rome. When war broke out and peace negotiations were done, the Austrians (
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a political entity in Western, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. From the accession of Otto I in 962 ...
) agreed to give up the use of the Julius Caesar, Caesar title according to Treaty of Constantinople (1533) (though they would continue to use it and the Roman imperial title until the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806). The Russians, who defined Moscow as the Third Rome, were similarly sanctioned by the Ottomans, who ordered the Crimean Khanate to raid Russia on numerous occasions. The Ottomans would lose their political superiority over the Holy Roman Empire with the Peace of Zsitvatorok, Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606, and over the Russian Empire with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774, by diplomatically recognising the monarchs of these two countries as equals to the Ottoman Sultan for the first time.


List of holders

;Byzantine nobles *Tervel, Khan (title), khan of the Bulgars, named in 705 by
Justinian II Justinian II ( la, Iustinianus; gr, Ἰουστινιανός, Ioustinianós; 668/69 – 4 November 711), nicknamed "the Slit-Nosed" ( la, Rhinotmetus; gr, ὁ Ῥινότμητος, ho Rhinótmētos), was the last Eastern Roman emperor of the ...
*Nikephoros (Caesar), Nikephoros & Christopher (Caesar), Christopher, named on 2 April 769 by their father
Constantine V Constantine V ( grc-gre, Κωνσταντῖνος, Kōnstantīnos; la, Constantinus; July 718 – 14 September 775), was Byzantine emperor from 741 to 775. His reign saw a consolidation of Byzantine security from external threats. As an able ...
J. R. Martindale (2001),
Nikephoros 5
. ''Prosopography of the Byzantine Empire''.
* Alexios Mosele, likely named in 831 by his father-in-law Theophilos * Bardas, named on 22 April 862 by his nephew Michael III *Romanos I Lekapenos, named on 24 September 920 by the Byzantine senate * Bardas Phokas, named in late 963 by his son Nikephoros II *Romanos III Argyros, named on 9 November 1028 by Constantine VIII *Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger, named by his father-in-law Alexios I *John Doukas (Caesar), John Doukas, named in 1074 by his brother Constantine X *
George II of Georgia :''There was also a Giorgi II, Catholicos of Kartli who ruled in 826–838.'' George II ( ka, გიორგი II, ''Giorgi II'') ( 1054 – 1112), of the Bagrationi Dynasty, was a king of Georgia from 1072 to 1089. He was a son and successor ...
, named in 1081 by his brother-in-law Nikephoros III *Nikephoros Melissenos, named in 1080 by Alexios I *Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I), Isaac Komnenos, named in 1104 by his father Alexios I *John Rogerios Dalassenos, named 1130 by his father-in-law John II Komnenos, John II *Renier of Montferrat, named in 1180 by his father-in-law Manuel I Komnenos, Manuel I *John Kantakouzenos (Caesar), John Kantakouzenos, named in 1186 by Isaac II Angelos, Isaac II *Conrad of Montferrat, named in 1187 by his father-in-law Isaac II *Manuel Maurozomes, named 1200 by Alexios III Angelos, Alexios III *Leo Gabalas, named by Theodore I Laskaris (r. 1205–1221) *Constantine Palaiologos (half-brother of Michael VIII), Constantine Palaiologos, named in 1259 by his brother Michael VIII Palaiologos, Michael VIII *
Alexios Strategopoulos Alexios Komnenos Strategopoulos ( gr, Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνὸς Στρατηγόπουλος) was a Byzantine aristocrat and general who rose to the rank of '' megas domestikos'' and ''Caesar''. Distantly related to the Komnenian dynasty ...
, named in 1259 by Michael VIII *Roger de Flor, leader of the Catalan Company, named in 1304 by Andronikos II Palaiologos, Andronikos II *John Palaiologos (Caesar), John Palaiologos, named in 1326 by his uncle Andronikos II *Hrelja, likely named by
John VI Kantakouzenos John VI Kantakouzenos or Cantacuzene ( el, , ''Iōánnēs Ángelos Palaiológos Kantakouzēnós''; la, Johannes Cantacuzenus;  – 15 June 1383) was a Byzantine Greek nobleman, statesman, and general. He served as grand domestic under ...
(r. 1347–1354) ;Serbian rulers *Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos, named in 1373 by Despot of Epirus, despot Thomas Preljubović *Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos, named in 1390 by Despot of Epirus, despot Esau de' Buondelmonti *Grgur Golubić, named in 1347 by Stefan Uroš IV Dušan *Vojihna, named in 1347 by Uroš IV *Preljub, named in 1348–9 by Uroš IV *Uglješa Vlatković, named by Uroš V *Nikola Radonja, named by Uroš V *Kesar Novak, Novak, named by Uroš V ;Ottoman rulers * Mehmed II, assumed title in 1453 (''Kayser-i Rûm'') *Bayezid II, inherited from predecessor *Selim I, inherited from predecessor *Suleiman the Magnificent, Suleiman I, inherited from predecessor *Selim II, inherited from predecessor *Murad III, inherited from predecessor *Mehmed III, inherited from predecessor *Ahmed I, inherited from predecessor *Mustafa I, inherited from predecessor *Osman II, inherited from predecessor *Murad IV, inherited from predecessor *Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire, Ibrahim, inherited from predecessor *Mehmed IV, inherited from predecessor


Legacy


Title (and name)

The history of "Caesar" as an imperial title is reflected by the following monarchic titles, usually reserved for "emperor" and "empress" in many languages (note that the name Caesar, pronounced in English, was pronounced in Classical Latin): Afro-Asiatic languages: * Arabic Language, Arabic: Qays'r قصر;قيصر Qas'r * he, Kesár קיסר (male) and Kesarít קיסרית (female); Albanian language, Albanian: * sq, Çezar and Qesarinë; Armenian language, Armenian: * hy, կայսր ''Kaysr'', and hy, կայսրություն ''Kaysrutiun'' meaning ''empire'';
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
: * Modern Greek: el, Καίσαρας (''Kaisaras''), the archaic form el, Καίσαρ is rarely used today; Austronesian languages: * Indonesian language, Bahasa Indonesia: Kaisar; Baltic languages: * lv, Ķeizars and Ķeizariene; Germanic languages: * da, Kejser and Kejserinde; * nl, Keizer and Keizerin; * german: Kaiser and Kaiserin; * is, Keisari and Keisaraynja; * fo, Keisari and Keisarinna; * no, Keiser and Keiserinne (bokmål) / Keisar and Keisarinne (nynorsk); * sv, Kejsare and Kejsarinna * Old English language, Old English: cāsere Indo-Iranian languages: * fa, Ghaysar قيصر * Urdu: Qaysar قيصر used in the title "Kaisar-i-Hind, Kaiser-i-Hind" ("Emperor of India") during the British Raj Kartvelian languages * Georgian language, Georgian: კეისარი (Keisari) Romance languages *Italian language, Italian, Cesare, used as a first name. *Romanian language, Romanian, cezar as a common noun in certain contexts; Cezar, used as a first name. *Spanish language, Spanish, Portuguese language, Portuguese and French language, French, César: commonly used as first or second name. Slavic languages: * be, Цар, царыца, tsar, tsarytsa * bg, Цар, царица, tsar, tsaritsa; * cs, Císař, císařovna; * mk, Цар, царица, tsar, tsarica * pl, Cesarz, Cesarzowa; * russian: Царь, Царица, tsar, tsaritsa; however in the Russian Empire (also reflected in some of its other languages), which aimed to be the "third Rome" as successor to the Byzantine Empire, it was abandoned (not in the foreign language renderings though) as imperial style—in favor of Imperator and Autocrator—and used as a lower, ''royal'' style as within the empire in chief of some of its parts, e.g. Georgia (country), Georgia and Siberia ** In the United States and, more recently, Britain, the title "czar" (an archaic transliteration of the Russian title) is a slang term used for certain high-level civil servants, for instance—"drug czar" for the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy and "terrorism czar" for a Presidential advisor on terrorism policy. More specifically, a czar refers to a sub-cabinet-level advisor within the executive branch of the U.S. government. * sh-Latn-Cyrl, Car, carica, цар, царица * sk, Cisár, cisárovná; * sl, cesar, cesarica or ; * uk, Цісар, цісарева, tsisar, tsisareva, also uk, цар/царь, царина, (archaic) czar and czarina, (modern) tsar, tsaryna Turkic languages: * tr, Kayser (Old Anatolian Turkish, histoOttoman Turkish, rical), Sezar (modern). Kayser-i-Rûm "Caesar of [Constantinople, the second] Rome", one of many subsidiary titles proclaiming the Ottoman Sultan (main imperial title Padishah) as (Muslim) successor to "Rum" as the Turks called the (Christian) Roman Empire (as Byzantium had continued to call itself), continuing to use the name for part of formerly Byzantine territory (compare the Seljuk Rum-sultanate) Uralic languages: * et, Keiser and Keisrinna; * fi, Keisari and Keisarinna or Keisaritar; * hu, Császár and Császárnő; In various Romance and other languages, the imperial title was based on the Latin Imperator (a military mandate or a victory title), but Caesar or a derivation is still used for both the name and the minor ranks (still perceived as Latin). There have been other cases of a noun proper being turned into a title, such as Charlemagne's Latin name, including the epithet, ''Carolus (magnus)'', becoming Slavonic titles rendered as King: Kralj (Serbo-Croatian), Král (Czech) and Król (Polish), etc. However certain languages, especially Romance languages, also commonly use a "modernized" word (e.g., ''César'' in French) for the name, both referring to the Roman cognomen and modern use as a first name, and even to render the title Caesar, sometimes again extended to the derived imperial titles above. Yoruba language: * yo, Késárì Tr anslation of the name Caesar was first recorded in the first book translated to Yoruba, the Bible. The Caesar in the Bible refers to Emperor Augustus, who was referred to as Caesar. It was not used as a title for kings as it did not reach the language till the late 19th century and was not widely known till the 20th century. The main title for king was "Kábíyèsi", meaning one who cannot be questioned (Ká-bí-yò-èsi).


Historiography

Oswald Spengler used the term, ''Caesarism'', in his book, ''The Decline of the West''.


See also

* Augustus (title) * Caesaropapism * Khosrow (word)


References


Bibliography

* * * * * *


Further reading

* * Pauly-Wissowa – ''Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft'' {{Byzantine offices after pseudo-Kodinos Ancient Roman titles Titles of national or ethnic leadership Byzantine court titles Imperial titles