HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Battle of Kleidion ( grc-gre, Κλειδίον; or Clidium, after the medieval name of the village of
Klyuch Klyuch (, "key"; also transliterated ''Кључ, Ključ, Kliuch, Kljuch'', etc., Medieval Greek: Κλειδίον, ''Kleidion,'' Latin: Clidium) is a village in south-westernmost Bulgaria, part of Petrich Municipality, Blagoevgrad Province. It l ...
, "(the) key"; also known as the Battle of Belasitsa) took place on July 29, 1014, between the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
and the
Bulgarian Empire In the medieval history of Europe, Bulgaria's status as the Bulgarian Empire ( bg, Българско царство, ''Balgarsko tsarstvo'' ) occurred in two distinct periods: between the seventh and the eleventh centuries and again between th ...
. It was the culmination of the nearly half-century struggle between the
Byzantine Emperor This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as le ...
Basil II Basil II Porphyrogenitus ( gr, Βασίλειος Πορφυρογέννητος ;) and, most often, the Purple-born ( gr, ὁ πορφυρογέννητος, translit=ho porphyrogennetos).. 958 – 15 December 1025), nicknamed the Bulgar ...
and the
Bulgarian Emperor In the medieval history of Europe, Bulgaria's status as the Bulgarian Empire ( bg, Българско царство, ''Balgarsko tsarstvo'' ) occurred in two distinct periods: between the seventh and the eleventh centuries and again between the ...
Samuel in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. The result was a decisive Byzantine victory. The battle took place in the valley between the mountains of
Belasitsa Belasica ( Macedonian and Bulgarian: , also translit. ''Belasitsa'' or ''Belasitza'', Ottoman Turkish: بلش Turkish: ''Beleş''), Belles ( el, Μπέλλες, ''Bélles'') or Kerkini (, ''Kerkíni'';), is a mountain range in the region of M ...
and Ograzhden, near the modern Bulgarian village of
Klyuch Klyuch (, "key"; also transliterated ''Кључ, Ključ, Kliuch, Kljuch'', etc., Medieval Greek: Κλειδίον, ''Kleidion,'' Latin: Clidium) is a village in south-westernmost Bulgaria, part of Petrich Municipality, Blagoevgrad Province. It l ...
. The decisive encounter occurred on July 29 with an attack in the rear by a force under the Byzantine general
Nikephoros Xiphias Nikephoros Xiphias ( el, Νικηφόρος Ξιφίας, ) was a Byzantine military commander during the reign of Emperor Basil II. He played a distinguished role in the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria, and was instrumental in the decisive Byzant ...
, who had infiltrated the Bulgarian positions. The ensuing battle was a major defeat for the Bulgarians. Bulgarian soldiers were captured and reputedly blinded by order of Basil II, who would subsequently be known as the "Bulgar-Slayer". Samuel survived the battle, but died two months later from a heart attack, reportedly brought on by the sight of his blind soldiers. Although the engagement did not end the First Bulgarian Empire, the Battle of Kleidion reduced its ability to resist Byzantine advances, and it has been considered the pivotal encounter of the war with Byzantium.


Background

The origins of the conflict date back to the 7th century, when the
Bulgars The Bulgars (also Bulghars, Bulgari, Bolgars, Bolghars, Bolgari, Proto-Bulgarians) were Turkic semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region during the 7th century. They became known as nomad ...
under
Khan Khan may refer to: *Khan (inn), from Persian, a caravanserai or resting-place for a travelling caravan *Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name *Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by ...
Asparukh Asparuh (also ''Ispor''; bg, Аспарух, Asparuh or (rarely) bg, Исперих, Isperih) was а ruler of Bulgars in the second half of the 7th century and is credited with the establishment of the First Bulgarian Empire in 681. Early life ...
established a state along the Danube in one of the provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire. As a result, the Bulgarian state fought a series of wars with Byzantium in order to secure its continued existence. In 968, Bulgaria was invaded from the north by the Kievan Prince
Sviatoslav Sviatoslav (russian: Святосла́в, Svjatosláv, ; uk, Святосла́в, Svjatosláv, ) is a Russian and Ukrainian given name of Slavic origin. Cognates include Svetoslav, Svatoslav, , Svetislav. It has a Pre-Christian pagan characte ...
. By that time, the Bulgarian Empire, which had once threatened the existence of Byzantium under the reign of
Simeon Simeon () is a given name, from the Hebrew (Biblical ''Šimʿon'', Tiberian ''Šimʿôn''), usually transliterated as Shimon. In Greek it is written Συμεών, hence the Latinized spelling Symeon. Meaning The name is derived from Simeon, so ...
, had lost much of its power. During the conflict, the Kievan raids were repeatedly defeated by the Byzantines, who were also at war with the Bulgarians, a continuous conflict since the fall of the Bulgarian capital Preslav in 971. This war had resulted in the Bulgarian Emperor Boris II being forced to renounce his Imperial title in Constantinople, and eastern Bulgaria came under Byzantine rule. The Byzantines assumed that this act would signify the end of independent Bulgaria, but the western Bulgarian lands remained autonomous and under the
Comitopuli The Kometopuli dynasty ( Bulgarian: , Bulgarian; ; Byzantine Greek: , ) was the last royal dynasty in the First Bulgarian Empire, ruling from ca. 976 until the fall of Bulgaria under Byzantine rule in 1018. The most notable member of the dynas ...
brothers David, Moses,
Aaron According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron ''′aharon'', ar, هارون, Hārūn, Greek (Septuagint): Ἀαρών; often called Aaron the priest ()., group="note" ( or ; ''’Ahărōn'') was a prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of ...
and Samuel, resistance against the Byzantines emerged. When the
Byzantine emperor This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as le ...
Basil II Basil II Porphyrogenitus ( gr, Βασίλειος Πορφυρογέννητος ;) and, most often, the Purple-born ( gr, ὁ πορφυρογέννητος, translit=ho porphyrogennetos).. 958 – 15 December 1025), nicknamed the Bulgar ...
ascended the throne in 976, he made the destruction of independent Bulgaria his first ambition. Opposing him were the Western Bulgarians, now led by
Samuel of Bulgaria Samuel (also Samuil; bg, Самуил, ; mk, Самоил/Самуил, ; Old Church Slavonic: Самоилъ; died October 6, 1014) was the Tsar (''Emperor'') of the First Bulgarian Empire from 997 to 6 October 1014. From 977 to 997, he was a ...
. Basil II's first campaign was disastrous, the emperor barely escaping with his life when the Bulgarians annihilated the Byzantine army in the Gates of Trajan Pass in 986. Over the next fifteen years, while Basil was preoccupied with revolts against his rule and the
Fatimid The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries AD. Spanning a large area of North Africa, it ranged from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Fatimids, a dyn ...
threat in the East, Samuel retook most of the previously conquered Bulgarian lands and carried the war into enemy territory in a series of campaigns. However, his invasion of southern Greece, that reached as far as Corinth, resulted in a major defeat in the
Battle of Spercheios The Battle of Spercheios ( bg, Битка при Сперхей, el, Μάχη του Σπερχειού) took place in 997 AD, on the shores of the Spercheios river near the city of Lamia in central Greece. It was fought between a Bulgarian a ...
in 996. The next phase of the war began in 1000, when Basil, having secured his own position, launched a series of offensives against Bulgaria. He secured Moesia, and in 1003, his forces took Vidin. The next year, Basil inflicted a heavy defeat on Samuel in the
Battle of Skopie The Battle of Skopje occurred in the vicinity of the city of Skopje in 1004. Background In 1003, Basil II launched a campaign against the First Bulgarian Empire and after eight months of siege conquered the important town of Vidin to the north- ...
. By 1005, Basil had regained control of Thessaly and parts of southern Macedonia. Over these and the next few years, a regular pattern emerged: the Byzantines would campaign in Bulgaria, laying siege to forts and pillaging the countryside, while the numerically inferior Bulgarians, unable to offer direct opposition, launched diversionary raids in Macedonia and Greece. Despite some successes, these did not achieve any permanent results, nor did they force Basil to abandon his campaigns in Bulgaria. A counter-attack in 1009 failed at the Battle of Kreta, and although the Byzantines themselves did not achieve any decisive success, their methodical war of attrition deprived the Bulgarians of their strongholds and gradually weakened their forces. In the words of Byzantine historian
John Skylitzes John Skylitzes, commonly Latinized as Ioannes, la, Johannes, label=none, la, Iōannēs, label=none Scylitzes ( el, Ἰωάννης Σκυλίτζης, ''Iōánnēs Skylítzēs'', or el, Σκυλίτση, ''Skylítsē'', label=none ; la, ...
: "The Emperor
Basil II Basil II Porphyrogenitus ( gr, Βασίλειος Πορφυρογέννητος ;) and, most often, the Purple-born ( gr, ὁ πορφυρογέννητος, translit=ho porphyrogennetos).. 958 – 15 December 1025), nicknamed the Bulgar ...
continued to invade Bulgaria each year and destroy and devastate everything on his way. Samuel could not stop him in the open field or engage the Emperor in a decisive battle, and suffered many defeats and began to lose his strength." The culmination of the war came in 1014, when Samuel, at the head of his army, resolved to stop the Byzantine army before it could enter the Bulgarian heartland.


Prelude

Samuel knew that the Byzantine army would have to invade the country through a series of mountain passes, and so took precautions to bar them. The Bulgarians built ditches along the frontier and fortified many of the valleys and passes with walls and towers, especially the pass of Kleidion on the Struma River which Basil would need to pass through to reach the heart of Bulgaria. Samuel heavily fortified the northern slopes of the Belasitsa mountain to the south and east of Strumitsa Castle. The wide valley of the
Strumitsa River The Strumica (Macedonian and bg, Струмица, ; also transliterated ''Strumitsa'' or ''Strumitza'') or Strumeshnitsa () is a river in North Macedonia and Bulgaria. It runs through the town of Strumica and flows into the river Struma. The ...
was a convenient place for attack and it had been used by Byzantine forces for this purpose in previous years. The Bulgarians disposed a strong guard to keep the pass safe. In addition, the Bulgarian ruler chose
Strumitsa Strumica ( mk, Струмица, ) is the largest city2002 census results
in English and Macedon ...
for his defensive base — it was located on the road from Thessaloniki leading to Thrace to the east and Ohrid to the west. The rugged terrain to the south was dotted with earthworks and walls guarded by strong Bulgarian units. Samuel's decision to face Basil II and the bulk of his army at Kleidion was not only prompted by the constant defeats and invasions which had devastated the country, but also by concerns over his authority among the nobility, which had been fatally weakened by Basil's campaigns. In 1005 for example, the governor of the important
Adriatic The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to the ...
port of Dyrrhachium had surrendered the town to Basil II. To face this threat, Samuel gathered a large army to face the Byzantines, some claiming it numbered as many as 45,000 soldiers. Basil II also prepared carefully, assembling a large army of his own and taking his most experienced commanders, including the governor of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv), Nicephorus Xiphias, who had conquered the old Bulgarian capitals Pliska and Preslav from Samuel in 1001.


Battle

The Byzantine army marched from Constantinople through
Komotini Komotini ( el, Κομοτηνή, tr, Gümülcine, bg, Комотини) is a city in the region of East Macedonia and Thrace, northeastern Greece. It is the capital of the Rhodope. It was the administrative centre of the Rhodope-Evros super-p ...
, Drama and Serres and reached the Rupel pass on the Struma river. From there the army entered the Strumitsa valley and reached the vicinity of the village of Klyuch, where the river bent and approached Belasitsa and Ozgrazhden. There the army was stopped by a thick wooden wall, defended by Bulgarian soldiers. The Byzantines attacked the palisade immediately, but were repulsed with heavy casualties. In response, Samuel sent a large army under one of the most able Bulgarian nobles, Nestoritsa, to strike southwards and draw the attention of Basil away from the siege at Klyuch. Nestoritsa's Bulgarians reached
Thessalonika Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...
, but Byzantine troops under
Theophylact Botaneiates Theophylact Botaneiates ( el, Θεοφύλακτος Βοτανειάτης, ''Theophylaktos Botaneiates'') was an 11th-century Byzantine general and governor of Thessalonica. Life Theophylact Botaneiates is only mentioned in the history of John ...
, the ''
strategos ''Strategos'', plural ''strategoi'', Latinized ''strategus'', ( el, στρατηγός, pl. στρατηγοί; Doric Greek: στραταγός, ''stratagos''; meaning "army leader") is used in Greek to mean military general. In the Hellenisti ...
'' (Governor-General) of the city and his son Mihail managed to defeat them outside the city walls in a bloody battle. Theophylactus captured many soldiers and a large quantity of military equipment and marched north to join Basil II at Klyuch. Basil II's first attempt to overwhelm the defenders of the pass was unsuccessful and his army was unable to pass through the valley, which was defended by 15,000–20,000 Bulgarians. Despite the difficulties the Byzantine Emperor did not abandon the attack. He ordered his general Nicephorus Xiphias to manoeuvre his troops around the high Belasitsa mountain and threaten the Bulgarians from behind, while he continued the assaults on the wall.''Cedrin'', pp. 457–458.
George Kedrenos George Kedrenos, Cedrenus or Cedrinos ( el, Γεώργιος Κεδρηνός, fl. 11th century) was a Byzantine Greek historian. In the 1050s he compiled ''Synopsis historion'' (also known as ''A concise history of the world''), which spanned the ...
's ''Historical Synopsis'' is a compilation chronicle based on the writings of
John Skylitzes John Skylitzes, commonly Latinized as Ioannes, la, Johannes, label=none, la, Iōannēs, label=none Scylitzes ( el, Ἰωάννης Σκυλίτζης, ''Iōánnēs Skylítzēs'', or el, Σκυλίτση, ''Skylítsē'', label=none ; la, ...
,
George Syncellus George Syncellus ( el, Γεώργιος Σύγκελλος, ''Georgios Synkellos''; died after 810) was a Byzantine chronicler and ecclesiastic. He had lived many years in Palestine (probably in the Old Lavra of Saint Chariton or Souka, near Tekoa) ...
, Theophanes the Confessor and several other historians. It is not clear what edition is referred to here.
Xiphias led his troops along a steep path that led him into the Bulgarians' rear. On July 29, Xiphias attacked the Bulgarian defenders, trapping them in the valley. The Bulgarians abandoned their towers to face this new threat and Basil was able to break through the front line and destroy the wall. In the confusion of the rout, thousands of Bulgarian troops were killed and the remainder desperately attempted to flee westwards. Samuel and his son Gabriel Radomir immediately headed to the east from their headquarters in the
Strumitsa Strumica ( mk, Струмица, ) is the largest city2002 census results
in English and Macedon ...
fortress to aid their army, but in desperate fighting near the village of Mokrievo (present-day North Macedonia) they were overwhelmed by the quickly advancing enemy. Many Bulgarian soldiers were killed at Mokrievo and many more were captured. Emperor Samuel himself barely escaped, only breaking free through the bravery of his son, who mounted his father on his own horse and took him to safety in
Prilep Prilep ( mk, Прилеп ) is the fourth-largest city in North Macedonia. It has a population of 66,246 and is known as "the city under Marko's Towers" because of its proximity to the towers of Prince Marko. Name The name of Prilep appea ...
. From Prilep, Samuel returned to
Prespa Prespa ( mk, Преспа, sq, Prespa, el, Πρέσπα) is a region shared between North Macedonia, Albania and Greece. It shares the same name with the two Prespa lakes which are situated in the middle of the region. The largest town is Rese ...
while Gabriel Radomir headed towards Strumitsa to continue the struggle.


Further developments

After his victory, Basil II advanced towards Strumitsa, which was key to holding the whole Vardar valley. On their way to the city, the Byzantines seized the Matsukion fortress to the east of their advance. The Byzantine Emperor also sent an army under Botaneiates to surround Strumitsa and destroy all ramparts to the south and clear the passage to Thessalonica. With the remainder of his troops, Basil laid siege to the city itself. The Bulgarians allowed Botaneiates to destroy the fortifications, but he and his army were ambushed by Bulgarian raiders in a narrow valley, soon after their task was complete. In the ensuing battle Botaneiates was completely defeated and the Bulgarian commander Gabriel Radomir personally stabbed Botaneiates with his spear. As a result, Basil II was forced to abandon the siege of Strumitsa and retreat. On the return, the eloquence of the ''
cubicularius ''Cubicularius'', Hellenized as ''koubikoularios'' ( gr, κουβικουλάριος), was a title used for the eunuch chamberlains of the imperial palace in the later Roman Empire and in the Byzantine Empire. The feminine version, used for the l ...
'' Sergius convinced the defenders of Melnik to surrender, another heavy blow for the Bulgarians as the town guarded the main road to Sofia from the south.


Prisoners

Skylitzes records that Basil completely routed the Bulgarian army and took 15,000 prisoners (14,000 according to
Kekaumenos Kekaumenos ( el, Κεκαυμένος) is the family name of the otherwise unidentified Byzantine author of the '' Strategikon'', a manual on military and household affairs composed c. 1078. He was apparently of Georgian-Armenian origin and the gra ...
). Modern historians, however, such as
Vasil Zlatarski Vasil Nikolov Zlatarski ( bg, Васил Николов Златарски; – 15 December 1935) was a Bulgarian historian-medievalist, archaeologist, and epigraphist. Life Vasil Zlatarski was born in Veliko Tarnovo in 1866, the younges ...
, claim that these numbers are exaggerated. The 14th century Bulgarian translation of the
Manasses Chronicle Constantine Manasses ( el, Κωνσταντῖνος Μανασσῆς; c. 1130 - c. 1187) was a Byzantine chronicler who flourished in the 12th century during the reign of Manuel I Komnenos (1143-1180). He was the author of a chronicle or historic ...
numbers the prisoners at 8,000. Basil divided the prisoners into groups of 100 men, blinded 99 men in each group and left one man in each with one eye so that he could lead the others home; this was done in retaliation for the death of Botaneiates, who was Basil's favourite general and advisor, and also to crush the Bulgarian morale. Another possible reason was that, in Byzantine eyes, the Bulgarians were rebels against their authority, and blinding was the usual punishment meted out to rebels. For this action, Basil gained the nickname ''Boulgaroktonos'' ( el, Βουλγαροκτόνος, bg, Българоубиец), "the Bulgar-slayer". Samuel died of a heart attack on October 6, 1014, reportedly due to seeing his soldiers blinded.


Aftermath

The death of Botaneiates and the four more years of war that followed indicate that the Byzantine success was not complete. Some modern historians doubt that the Bulgarian defeat was as complete as described by Skylitzes and Kekaumenos. Other historians emphasize that the death of Emperor Samuel two months later was much more fateful for Bulgaria. His heirs Gabriel Radomir and
Ivan Vladislav Ivan Vladislav ( cu, Їѡаннъ Владиславъ; bg, Иван/Йоан Владислав; died February 1018) ruled as emperor (tsar) of the First Bulgarian Empire from August or September 1015 to February 1018. The year of his birth is ...
were unable to effectively resist the attacks of Basil II, and Bulgaria was completely defeated in 1018. In that year Emperor Ivan Vladislav was killed in a battle at Dyrrhachium, and Bulgaria became a province of the Byzantine Empire until the successful uprising led by the Asen brothers in 1185. Other theses in the historiography stress the significance of the battle. As a result of the battle of Belasitsa, the Bulgarian army suffered heavy casualties that could not be restored. The ability of the central government to control the peripheral and interior provinces of the Empire was reduced and the actions of the local and provincial governors became more decisive for the outcome of the war with Byzantium. Many of them voluntarily surrendered to Basil II. The battle also affected the Serbs and the
Croats The Croats (; hr, Hrvati ) are a South Slavic ethnic group who share a common Croatian ancestry, culture, history and language. They are also a recognized minority in a number of neighboring countries, namely Austria, the Czech Republic, ...
, who were forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the Byzantine Emperor after 1018. The borders of the Byzantine Empire were restored to the Danube for the first time since the 7th century, allowing Byzantium to control the entire
Balkan peninsula The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the whol ...
from the Danube to the Peloponnese and from the
Adriatic Sea The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to the ...
to the Black Sea.''Vasiliev'', A., History of the Byzantine empire, 6. The Macedonian epoch (867–1081)
Relations of the Byzantine Empire with the Bulgarians and Magyars
retrieved on 20 November 2007. (in Russian: ''Васильев'', А. А., "История Византийской империи"

)


References


Further reading

*John Skylitzes

, translated by Paul Stephenson

*Treadgold, Warren T. ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997. *Mutafchiev, Petar, ''Book about the Bulgarians'' (''Kniga za balgarite, Книга за българите''), in Bulgarian, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Publishing House, Sofia 1992, *Mutafchiev, Petar, ''Lecture notes on Byzantine history'' (''Lektsii po istoria na Vizantia, Лекции по история на Византия''),in Bulgarian, Vol. II, Anubis Publishers, Sofia 1995, (т. 2) *Gyuzelev, Vasil, Bulgaria from the second quarter of the 10th century to the beginning of the 11th century, (Balgaria ot vtorata chetvart na X do nachaloto na XI vek, България от втората четвърт на Х до началото на ХІ век), in Bulgarian, In: Dimitrov, Ilcho (Ed.), ''Short History of Bulgaria'' (''Kratka istoria na Balgaria, Кратка история на България''), in Bulgarian, Science and Arts Publishers, Sofia 1983 *Bozhilov, Ivan, ''Tsar Simeon the Great (893–927): The Golden Century of Medieval Bulgaria'' (''Tsar Simeon Veliki (893–927): Zlatniyat vek na Srednovekovna Balgaria, Цар Симеон Велики (893–927): Златният век на Средновековна България''), in Bulgarian, Fatherland Front Publishers, Sofia 1983 *Pirivatrich, Sardzan, ''The State of Samuel. Territory and Characteristics'' (''Samuilovata darzhava. Obhvat i harakter, Самуиловата държава. Обхват и характер''), AGATA-A Publishing Group, Sofia 2000, *Selected sources of Bulgarian history (''Podbrani izvori na balgarskata istoria, Подбрани извори за българската история''), Vol. II: Bulgarian States and Bulgarians in the Middle Ages (Balgarskite darzhavi i balgarite prez Srednovekovieto, Българските държави и българите през Средновековието), TANGRA TanNakRA IK Publishers, in Bulgarian, Sofia 2004, *Angelov, Dimitar, and Boris Cholpanov, ''Bulgarian Military History in the Middle Ages (10th–15th centuries)'' (''Balgarska voenna istoria prez srednovekovieto (X-XV vek), Българска военна история през средновековието (Х-XV век''), in Bulgarian, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Publishers, Sofia 1994, * * Ostrogorsky, George, ''History of Byzantium'' (''Istoria na vizantiyskata darzhava, История на византийската държава''), in Bulgarian, Sofia, 1998, * *Pavlov, Plamen, ''The Sunset of the First Bulgarian Kingdom (1015–1018)'' (''Zalezat na Parvoto balgarsko tsarstvo (1015–1018), Залезът на Първото българско царство (1015–1018)''), in Bulgarian, Marin Drinov Academic Publishers, Sofia, 1999, *Ćirković, Sima
''Doseljavanje slovena i dukljanska država''
fro

on 20 November 2007. *Holmes, Catherine

publ. in

An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors retrieved on 16 November 2007. *Vasiliev, А.
''History of the Byzantine empire''
retrieved on 20 November 2007. *Runciman, Steven, ''A History of the First Bulgarian Empire''

, retrieved on 28 January 2008. *Stevenson, Paul (2003). ''The Legend of Basil the Bulgar-Slayer''. Cambridge University Press (September 15, 2003).

retrieved on 28 January 2008.
The battle of Kleidion (in French).
retrieved on 28 January 2008. * , pp. 195–200 (pp. 195–197, 200 can be seen inside the link) {{DEFAULTSORT:Kleidion 1014 11th century in Bulgaria 1010s in the Byzantine Empire Battles involving the First Bulgarian Empire Kledion Battles of the Middle Ages Military history of Bulgaria History of Blagoevgrad Province Conflicts in 1014 Battles of Basil II 1014 in Europe