Automotive electronics are
electronic systems used in
vehicles
A vehicle (from la, vehiculum) is a machine that transports people or cargo. Vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles (motorcycles, cars, trucks, buses, mobility scooters for disabled people), railed vehicles (trains, trams), ...
, including
engine
An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one or more forms of energy into mechanical energy.
Available energy sources include potential energy (e.g. energy of the Earth's gravitational field as exploited in hydroelectric power ...
management,
ignition
Ignition may refer to:
Science and technology
* Firelighting, the human act of creating a fire for warmth, cooking and other uses
* Combustion, an exothermic chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidant
* Fusion ignition, the point at which a ...
,
radio
Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a tr ...
,
carputers,
telematics,
in-car entertainment systems, and others. Ignition, engine and transmission electronics are also found in
trucks,
motorcycles,
off-road vehicles, and other
internal combustion powered machinery such as
forklifts
A forklift (also called lift truck, jitney, hi-lo, fork truck, fork hoist, and forklift truck) is a powered industrial truck used to lift and move materials over short distances. The forklift was developed in the early 20th century by various ...
,
tractors and
excavators. Related elements for control of relevant electrical systems are also found on
hybrid vehicles and
electric cars.
Electronic systems have become an increasingly large component of the cost of an automobile, from only around 1% of its value in 1950 to around 30% in 2010. Modern
electric car
An electric car, battery electric car, or all-electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors, using only energy stored in batteries. Compared to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, electric cars are quiet ...
s rely on
power electronics for the main propulsion motor control, as well as managing the
battery system. Future
autonomous cars will rely on powerful computer systems, an array of sensors, networking, and satellite navigation, all of which will require electronics.
History
The earliest electronic systems available as factory installations were
vacuum tube
A vacuum tube, electron tube, valve (British usage), or tube (North America), is a device that controls electric current flow in a high vacuum between electrodes to which an electric potential difference has been applied.
The type known as ...
car radios, starting in the early 1930s. The development of
semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material which has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity falls as its temperature rises; metals behave in the opposite way. ...
after
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...
greatly expanded the use of
electronics
The field of electronics is a branch of physics and electrical engineering that deals with the emission, behaviour and effects of electrons using electronic devices. Electronics uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification ...
in automobiles, with
solid-state
Solid state, or solid matter, is one of the four fundamental states of matter.
Solid state may also refer to:
Electronics
* Solid-state electronics, circuits built of solid materials
* Solid state ionics, study of ionic conductors and their ...
diodes making the automotive
alternator the standard after about 1960, and the first
transistorized ignition systems appearing in 1963.
The emergence of
metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology led to the development of modern automotive electronics.
The
MOSFET
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a type of field-effect transistor (FET), most commonly fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon. It has an insulated gate, the voltage of which d ...
(MOS field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor), invented by
Mohamed M. Atalla and
Dawon Kahng at
Bell Labs
Nokia Bell Labs, originally named Bell Telephone Laboratories (1925–1984),
then AT&T Bell Laboratories (1984–1996)
and Bell Labs Innovations (1996–2007),
is an American industrial research and scientific development company owned by mul ...
in 1959,
led to the development of the
power MOSFET by
Hitachi
() is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. It is the parent company of the Hitachi Group (''Hitachi Gurūpu'') and had formed part of the Nissan ''zaibatsu'' and later DKB Group and Fuyo G ...
in 1969, and the
single-chip microprocessor
A microprocessor is a computer processor where the data processing logic and control is included on a single integrated circuit, or a small number of integrated circuits. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circ ...
by
Federico Faggin,
Marcian Hoff,
Masatoshi Shima
is a Japanese electronics engineer. He was one of the architects of the world's first microprocessor, the Intel 4004. In 1968, Shima worked for Busicom in Japan, and did the logic design for a specialized CPU to be translated into three-chip ...
and
Stanley Mazor
Stanley Mazor is an American microelectronics engineer who was born on 22 October 1941 in Chicago, Illinois. He is one of the co-inventors of the world's first microprocessor architecture, the Intel 4004, together with Ted Hoff, Masatoshi S ...
at
Intel
Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California. It is the world's largest semiconductor chip manufacturer by revenue, and is one of the developers of the x86 ser ...
in 1971.
The development of
MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) chips and microprocessors made a range of automotive applications economically feasible in the 1970s. In 1971,
Fairchild Semiconductor
Fairchild Semiconductor International, Inc. was an American semiconductor company based in San Jose, California. Founded in 1957 as a division of Fairchild Camera and Instrument, it became a pioneer in the manufacturing of transistors and of int ...
and
RCA Laboratories proposed the use of MOS
large-scale integration (LSI) chips for a wide range of automotive electronic applications, including a
transmission control unit (TCU),
adaptive cruise control
Adaptive cruise control (ACC) is an available cruise control advanced driver-assistance system for road vehicles that automatically adjusts the vehicle speed to maintain a safe distance from vehicles ahead. As of 2019, it is also called by 20 u ...
(ACC),
alternators,
automatic headlight dimmers,
electric fuel pumps,
electronic fuel-injection
Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. This article focuses on fuel injection in reciprocating piston and Wankel rotary engines.
All compr ...
,
electronic ignition control, electronic
tachometers,
sequential turn signals,
speed indicators,
tire-pressure monitors,
voltage regulators,
windshield wiper
A windscreen wiper, windshield wiper, wiper blade (American English), or simply wiper, is a device used to remove rain, snow, ice, washer fluid, water, or debris from a vehicle's front window. Almost all motor vehicles, including cars, tru ...
control,
Electronic Skid Prevention (ESP), and
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).
In the early 1970s, the
Japanese electronics industry began producing integrated circuits and
microcontrollers for the
Japanese automobile industry
The automotive industry in Japan is one of the most prominent and largest industries in the world. Japan has been in the top three of the countries with most cars manufactured since the 1960s, surpassing Germany. The automotive industry in Japa ...
, used for in-car entertainment, automatic wipers, electronic locks, dashboard, and engine control. The
Ford EEC The Ford EEC or Electronic Engine Control is a series of ECU (or Engine Control Unit) that was designed and built by Ford Motor Company. The first system, EEC I, used processors and components developed by Toshiba in 1973. It began production in 19 ...
(Electronic Engine Control) system, which utilized the
Toshiba
, commonly known as Toshiba and stylized as TOSHIBA, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. Its diversified products and services include power, industrial and social infrastructure systems, ...
TLCS-12
PMOS microprocessor, went into mass production in 1975.
In 1978, the
Cadillac Seville featured a "trip computer" based on a
6802 microprocessor. Electronically-controlled ignition and fuel injection systems allowed automotive designers to achieve vehicles meeting requirements for fuel economy and lower emissions, while still maintaining high levels of performance and convenience for drivers. Today's automobiles contain a dozen or more processors, in functions such as engine management, transmission control, climate control, antilock braking, passive safety systems, navigation, and other functions.
The power MOSFET and the
microcontroller, a type of single-chip microprocessor, led to significant advances in
electric vehicle
An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. It can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from extravehicular sources, or it can be powered autonomously by a battery (sometimes ch ...
technology. MOSFET
power converters allowed operation at much higher switching frequencies, made it easier to drive, reduced power losses, and significantly reduced prices, while single-chip microcontrollers could manage all aspects of the drive control and had the capacity for
battery management.
MOSFETs are used in
vehicles
A vehicle (from la, vehiculum) is a machine that transports people or cargo. Vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles (motorcycles, cars, trucks, buses, mobility scooters for disabled people), railed vehicles (trains, trams), ...
such as
automobiles
A car or automobile is a motor vehicle with wheels. Most definitions of ''cars'' say that they run primarily on roads, seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transport people instead of goods.
The year 1886 is regarded ...
,
cars,
trucks,
electric vehicles
An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for propulsion. It can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from extravehicular sources, or it can be powered autonomously by a battery (sometimes ch ...
,
and
smart cars.
MOSFETs are used for the
electronic control unit (ECU),
while the power MOSFET and
IGBT
An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily used as an electronic switch, which, as it was developed, came to combine high efficiency and fast switching. It consists of four alternating lay ...
are used as the load
drivers for automotive
loads such as
motors,
solenoids,
ignition coils,
relays,
heaters
A heater is an appliance whose purpose is to generate heat for a building.
Heater or Heaters may also refer to:
Science, technology and engineering
* Central heating, a system used to heat an entire building
Devices
* Aquarium heater, in fishk ...
and
lamps.
In 2000, the average mid-range
passenger vehicle had an estimated $100200 of
power semiconductor content, increasing by a potential 35 times for electric and
hybrid vehicles. , the average vehicle has over 50
actuators, typically controlled by power MOSFETs or other
power semiconductor device
A power semiconductor device is a semiconductor device used as a switch or rectifier in power electronics (for example in a switch-mode power supply). Such a device is also called a power device or, when used in an integrated circuit, a power IC. ...
s.
Another important technology that enabled modern highway-capable
electric cars is the
lithium-ion battery
A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery which uses the reversible reduction of lithium ions to store energy. It is the predominant battery type used in portable consumer electronics and electric vehicles. It also s ...
.
It was invented by
John Goodenough,
Rachid Yazami and
Akira Yoshino in the 1980s,
and commercialized by
Sony
, commonly stylized as SONY, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. As a major technology company, it operates as one of the world's largest manufacturers of consumer and professional ...
and
Asahi Kasei in 1991.
The lithium-ion battery was responsible for the development of electric vehicles capable of long-distance travel, by the 2000s.
Types
Automotive electronics or automotive embedded systems are distributed systems, and according to different domains in the automotive field, they can be classified into:
#
Engine electronics
#
Transmission electronics
#
Chassis electronics
#
Passive safety
Automotive safety is the study and practice of design, construction, equipment and regulation to minimize the occurrence and consequences of traffic collisions involving motor vehicles. Road traffic safety more broadly includes roadway design. ...
#
Driver assistance
An advanced driver-assistance system (ADAS) is any of a groups of electronic technologies that assist drivers in driving and parking functions. Through a safe human-machine interface, ADAS increase car and road safety. ADAS uses automated technol ...
#
Passenger comfort
#
Entertainment systems
#
Electronic integrated cockpit systems
On average, a 2020s car has 50—150
chips, according to Chris Isidore of CNN Business.
[Chris Isidore (22 Mar 2021) Computer chip shortage starting to hit automakers where it hurts]
/ref>
Engine electronics
One of the most demanding electronic parts of an automobile is the engine control unit
An engine control unit (ECU), also commonly called an engine control module (ECM), is a type of electronic control unit that controls a series of actuators on an internal combustion engine to ensure optimal engine performance. It does this by ...
(ECU). Engine controls demand one of the highest real-time deadlines, as the engine itself is a very fast and complex part of the automobile. Of all the electronics in any car, the computing power of the engine control unit is the highest, typically a 32-bit processor.
A modern car may have up to 100 ECU's and a commercial vehicle up to 40.
An engine ECU controls such functions as:
In a diesel engine
The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is a so-cal ...
:
* Fuel injection
Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most commonly automotive engines, by the means of an injector. This article focuses on fuel injection in reciprocating piston and Wankel rotary engines.
All com ...
rate
* Emission control, NOx control
* Regeneration of oxidation catalytic converter
* Turbocharger control
* Cooling system control
* Throttle control
In a gasoline engine:
* Lambda
Lambda (}, ''lám(b)da'') is the 11th letter of the Greek alphabet, representing the voiced alveolar lateral approximant . In the system of Greek numerals, lambda has a value of 30. Lambda is derived from the Phoenician Lamed . Lambda gave ri ...
control
* OBD (On-Board Diagnostics
On-board diagnostics (OBD) is a term referring to a vehicle's self-diagnostic and reporting capability. OBD systems give the vehicle owner or repair technician access to the status of the various vehicle sub-systems. The amount of diagnostic inf ...
)
* Cooling system control
* Ignition system control
* Lubrication system control (only a few have electronic control)
* Fuel injection rate control
* Throttle control
Many more engine parameters are actively monitored and controlled in real-time. There are about 20 to 50 that measure pressure, temperature, flow, engine speed, oxygen level and NOx level plus other parameters at different points within the engine. All these sensor signals are sent to the ECU, which has the logic circuits to do the actual controlling. The ECU output is connected to different actuator
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover".
An actuator requires a control device (controlled by control signal) a ...
s for the throttle valve, EGR valve, rack (in VGTs), fuel injector (using a pulse-width modulated signal), dosing injector and more. There are about 20 to 30 actuators in all.
Transmission electronics
These control the transmission system, mainly the shifting of the gears for better shift comfort and to lower torque interrupt while shifting. Automatic transmissions use controls for their operation, and also many semi-automatic transmissions having a fully automatic clutch or a semi-auto clutch (declutching only). The engine control unit and the transmission control exchange messages, sensor signals and control signals for their operation.
Chassis electronics
The chassis system has a lot of sub-systems which monitor various parameters and are actively controlled:
* ABS – Anti-lock Braking System
An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is a safety anti-skid braking system used on aircraft and on land vehicles, such as cars, motorcycles, trucks, and buses. ABS operates by preventing the wheels from locking up during braking, thereby maint ...
* ASR / TCS – Anti Slip Regulation
A traction control system (TCS), also known as ASR (from german: Antriebsschlupfregelung, lit=drive slippage regulation), is typically (but not necessarily) a secondary function of the electronic stability control (ESC) on production motor vehic ...
/ Traction Control System
* BAS – Brake Assist
* EBD – Electronic Brakeforce Distribution
Electronic brakeforce distribution (EBD or EBFD) or electronic brakeforce limitation (EBL) is an automobile brake technology that automatically varies the amount of force applied to each of a vehicle's wheels, based on road conditions, speed, loa ...
* EDC – Electronic Damper Control
* EDS – Electronic Differential Slippery
* ESP – Electronic Stability Program
Electronic stability control (ESC), also referred to as electronic stability program (ESP) or dynamic stability control (DSC), is a computerized technology that improves a vehicle's stability by detecting and reducing loss of traction ( skiddi ...
* ETS – Enhanced Traction System
* PA – Parking Assistance
Automatic parking is an autonomous car-maneuvering system that moves a vehicle from a traffic lane into a parking spot to perform parallel parking, parallel, perpendicular, or angle parking#Modes of parking, parking. The automatic parking system ...
Passive safety
These systems are always ready to act when there is a collision in progress or to prevent it when it senses a dangerous situation:
*Air bags
* Hill descent control
* Emergency brake assist system
Driver assistance
*Lane assist systems
*Speed assist system
*Blind spot detection
*Park assist system
* Adaptive cruise control system
*Pre-collision Assist
Passenger comfort
*Automatic climate control
*Electronic seat adjustment with memory
*Automatic wipers
*Automatic headlamps - adjusts beam automatically
*Automatic cooling - temperature adjustment
Entertainment systems
* Navigation system
* Vehicle audio
* Information access
All of the above systems form an infotainment system. Developmental methods for these systems vary according to each manufacturer. Different tools are used for both hardware and software
Software is a set of computer programs and associated documentation and data. This is in contrast to hardware, from which the system is built and which actually performs the work.
At the lowest programming level, executable code consist ...
development.
Electronic integrated cockpit systems
These are new generation hybrid ECUs that combine the functionalities of multiple ECUs of Infotainment Head Unit, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), Instrument Cluster, Rear Camera/Parking Assist, Surround View Systems etc. This saves on the cost of electronics as well as mechanical/physical parts like interconnects across ECUs etc. There is also a more centralized control so data can be seamlessly exchanged between the systems.
There are of course challenges too. Given the complexity of this hybrid system, a lot more rigor is needed to validate the system for robustness, safety and security. For example, if the infotainment system's application which could be running an open-source Android OS is breached, there could be possibility of hackers to take control of the car remotely and potentially misuse it for anti-social activities. Typically so, usage of a hardware+software enabled hypervisors are used to virtualize and create separate trust and safety zones that are immune to each other's failures or breaches. Lot of work is happening in this area and potentially will have such systems soon if not already.
Functional safety requirements
In order to minimize the risk of dangerous failures, safety-related electronic systems have to be developed following the applicable product liability requirements. Disregard for, or inadequate application of these standards can lead to not only personal injuries, but also severe legal and economic consequences such as product cancellations or recalls.
The IEC 61508 standard, generally applicable to electrical/electronic/programmable safety-related products, is only partially adequate for automotive-development requirements. Consequently, for the automotive industry, this standard is replaced by the existing ISO 26262, currently released as a Final Draft International Standard (FDIS). ISO/DIS 26262 describes the entire product life-cycle of safety-related electrical/electronic systems for road vehicles. It has been published as an international standard in its final version in November 2011. The implementation of this new standard will result in modifications and various innovations in the automobile electronics development process, as it covers the complete product life-cycle from the concept phase
In industry, Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) is the process of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from its inception through the engineering, design and manufacture, as well as the service and disposal of manufactured products. PLM ...
until its decommissioning.
Security
As more functions of the automobile are connected to short- or long-range networks, cybersecurity of systems against unauthorized modification is required. With critical systems such as engine controls, transmission, airbags, and braking connected to internal diagnostic networks, remote access could result in a malicious intruder altering the function of systems or disabling them, possibly causing injuries or fatalities. Every new interface presents a new " attack surface". The same facility that allows the owner to unlock and start a car from a smartphone app also presents risks due to remote access. Auto manufacturers may protect the memory of various control microprocessors both to secure them from unauthorized changes and also to ensure only manufacturer-authorized facilities can diagnose or repair the vehicle. Systems such as keyless entry rely on cryptographic techniques to ensure " replay" or " man-in-the-middle attacks" attacks cannot record sequences to allow later break-in to the automobile.
In 2015 the German general automobile club commissioned an investigation of the vulnerabilities of one manufacturer's electronics system, which could have led to such exploits as unauthorized remote unlocking of the vehicle.Auto, öffne dich! Sicherheitslücken bei BMWs ConnectedDrive
c't, 2015-02-05.
See also
*
Cellport Systems
*
Vetronics
Vetronics, a portmanteau of vehicle and electronics, is a technological designation used extensively in the military domain. The term also has limited usage in other contexts and in company branding, particularly in the veterinary and medical doma ...
References
Further reading
*
External links
International Automotive Electronics CongressSociety of Automotive EngineersClemson Vehicular Electronics Laboratory(Automotive Electronics Section)
{{Electronic systems