In
quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics is the fundamental physical Scientific theory, theory that describes the behavior of matter and of light; its unusual characteristics typically occur at and below the scale of atoms. Reprinted, Addison-Wesley, 1989, It is ...
, the angular momentum operator is one of several related
operators analogous to classical
angular momentum
Angular momentum (sometimes called moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational analog of Momentum, linear momentum. It is an important physical quantity because it is a Conservation law, conserved quantity – the total ang ...
. The angular momentum operator plays a central role in the theory of atomic and molecular physics and other quantum problems involving
rotational symmetry
Rotational symmetry, also known as radial symmetry in geometry, is the property a shape (geometry), shape has when it looks the same after some rotation (mathematics), rotation by a partial turn (angle), turn. An object's degree of rotational s ...
. Being an observable, its eigenfunctions represent the distinguishable physical states of a system's angular momentum, and the corresponding eigenvalues the observable experimental values. When applied to a mathematical representation of the state of a system, yields the same state multiplied by its angular momentum value if the state is an eigenstate (as per the eigenstates/eigenvalues equation). In both classical and quantum mechanical systems, angular momentum (together with
linear momentum and
energy
Energy () is the physical quantity, quantitative physical property, property that is transferred to a physical body, body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of Work (thermodynamics), work and in the form of heat and l ...
) is one of the three fundamental properties of motion.
[Introductory Quantum Mechanics, Richard L. Liboff, 2nd Edition, ]
There are several angular momentum operators: total angular momentum (usually denoted J), orbital angular momentum (usually denoted L), and spin angular momentum (spin for short, usually denoted S). The term ''angular momentum operator'' can (confusingly) refer to either the total or the orbital angular momentum. Total angular momentum is always
conserved, see
Noether's theorem
Noether's theorem states that every continuous symmetry of the action of a physical system with conservative forces has a corresponding conservation law. This is the first of two theorems (see Noether's second theorem) published by the mat ...
.
Overview
In quantum mechanics, angular momentum can refer to one of three different, but related things.
Orbital angular momentum
The
classical definition of angular momentum is
. The quantum-mechanical counterparts of these objects share the same relationship:
where r is the quantum
position operator, p is the quantum
momentum operator, × is
cross product
In mathematics, the cross product or vector product (occasionally directed area product, to emphasize its geometric significance) is a binary operation on two vectors in a three-dimensional oriented Euclidean vector space (named here E), and ...
, and L is the ''orbital angular momentum operator''. L (just like p and r) is a ''vector operator'' (a vector whose components are operators), i.e.
where ''L''
x, ''L''
y, ''L''
z are three different quantum-mechanical operators.
In the special case of a single particle with no
electric charge
Electric charge (symbol ''q'', sometimes ''Q'') is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. Electric charge can be ''positive'' or ''negative''. Like charges repel each other and ...
and no
spin, the orbital angular momentum operator can be written in the position basis as:
where is the vector differential operator,
del.
Spin angular momentum
There is another type of angular momentum, called
''spin angular momentum'' (more often shortened to ''spin''), represented by the spin operator
. Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is only a metaphor: the closest classical analog is based on wave circulation.
All
elementary particles
In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles. The Standard Model presently recognizes seventeen distinct particles—twelve fermions and five bosons. As a con ...
have a characteristic spin (
scalar bosons have zero spin). For example,
electron
The electron (, or in nuclear reactions) is a subatomic particle with a negative one elementary charge, elementary electric charge. It is a fundamental particle that comprises the ordinary matter that makes up the universe, along with up qua ...
s always have "spin 1/2" while
photon
A photon () is an elementary particle that is a quantum of the electromagnetic field, including electromagnetic radiation such as light and radio waves, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. Photons are massless particles that can ...
s always have "spin 1" (details
below).
Total angular momentum
Finally, there is
total angular momentum
In quantum mechanics, the total angular momentum quantum number parametrises the total angular momentum of a given particle, by combining its orbital angular momentum and its intrinsic angular momentum (i.e., its spin).
If s is the particle's ...
, which combines both the spin and orbital angular momentum of a particle or system:
Conservation of angular momentum
Angular momentum (sometimes called moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational analog of Momentum, linear momentum. It is an important physical quantity because it is a Conservation law, conserved quantity – the total ang ...
states that J for a closed system, or J for the whole universe, is conserved. However, L and S are ''not'' generally conserved. For example, the
spin–orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer back and forth between L and S, with the total J remaining constant.
Commutation relations
Commutation relations between components
The orbital angular momentum operator is a vector operator, meaning it can be written in terms of its vector components
. The components have the following
commutation relations with each other:
where denotes the
commutator
In mathematics, the commutator gives an indication of the extent to which a certain binary operation fails to be commutative. There are different definitions used in group theory and ring theory.
Group theory
The commutator of two elements, ...
This can be written generally as
where ''l'', ''m'', ''n'' are the component indices (1 for ''x'', 2 for ''y'', 3 for ''z''), and denotes the
Levi-Civita symbol.
A compact expression as one vector equation is also possible:
The commutation relations can be proved as a direct consequence of the
canonical commutation relations
, where is the
Kronecker delta
In mathematics, the Kronecker delta (named after Leopold Kronecker) is a function of two variables, usually just non-negative integers. The function is 1 if the variables are equal, and 0 otherwise:
\delta_ = \begin
0 &\text i \neq j, \\
1 &\ ...
.
There is an analogous relationship in classical physics:
where ''L''
''n'' is a component of the ''classical'' angular momentum operator, and
is the
Poisson bracket.
The same commutation relations apply for the other angular momentum operators (spin and total angular momentum):
[
These can be ''assumed'' to hold in analogy with L. Alternatively, they can be ''derived'' as discussed below.
These commutation relations mean that L has the mathematical structure of a ]Lie algebra
In mathematics, a Lie algebra (pronounced ) is a vector space \mathfrak g together with an operation called the Lie bracket, an alternating bilinear map \mathfrak g \times \mathfrak g \rightarrow \mathfrak g, that satisfies the Jacobi ident ...
, and the are its structure constants. In this case, the Lie algebra is SU(2) or SO(3) in physics notation ( or respectively in mathematics notation), i.e. Lie algebra associated with rotations in three dimensions. The same is true of J and S. The reason is discussed below. These commutation relations are relevant for measurement and uncertainty, as discussed further below.
In molecules the total angular momentum F is the sum of the rovibronic (orbital) angular momentum N, the electron spin angular momentum S, and the nuclear spin angular momentum I. For electronic singlet states the rovibronic angular momentum is denoted J rather than N. As explained by Van Vleck,
the components of the molecular rovibronic angular momentum referred to molecule-fixed axes have different commutation relations from those given above which are for the components about space-fixed axes.
Commutation relations involving vector magnitude
Like any vector, the square of a magnitude can be defined for the orbital angular momentum operator,
is another quantum operator. It commutes with the components of ,
One way to prove that these operators commute is to start from the ''ℓ'', ''L''''m''">'L''''ℓ'', ''L''''m''commutation relations in the previous section:
Mathematically, is a Casimir invariant of the Lie algebra
In mathematics, a Lie algebra (pronounced ) is a vector space \mathfrak g together with an operation called the Lie bracket, an alternating bilinear map \mathfrak g \times \mathfrak g \rightarrow \mathfrak g, that satisfies the Jacobi ident ...
SO(3) spanned by .
As above, there is an analogous relationship in classical physics:
where is a component of the ''classical'' angular momentum operator, and is the Poisson bracket.
Returning to the quantum case, the same commutation relations apply to the other angular momentum operators (spin and total angular momentum), as well,
Uncertainty principle
In general, in quantum mechanics, when two observable operators do not commute, they are called complementary observables. Two complementary observables cannot be measured simultaneously; instead they satisfy an uncertainty principle
The uncertainty principle, also known as Heisenberg's indeterminacy principle, is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. It states that there is a limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties, such as position a ...
. The more accurately one observable is known, the less accurately the other one can be known. Just as there is an uncertainty principle relating position and momentum, there are uncertainty principles for angular momentum.
The Robertson–Schrödinger relation gives the following uncertainty principle:
where is the standard deviation
In statistics, the standard deviation is a measure of the amount of variation of the values of a variable about its Expected value, mean. A low standard Deviation (statistics), deviation indicates that the values tend to be close to the mean ( ...
in the measured values of ''X'' and denotes the expectation value of ''X''. This inequality is also true if ''x, y, z'' are rearranged, or if ''L'' is replaced by ''J'' or ''S''.
Therefore, two orthogonal components of angular momentum (for example Lx and Ly) are complementary and cannot be simultaneously known or measured, except in special cases such as .
It is, however, possible to simultaneously measure or specify ''L''2 and any one component of ''L''; for example, ''L''2 and ''L''z. This is often useful, and the values are characterized by the azimuthal quantum number (''l'') and the magnetic quantum number (''m''). In this case the quantum state of the system is a simultaneous eigenstate of the operators ''L''2 and ''L''z, but ''not'' of ''L''x or ''L''y. The eigenvalues are related to ''l'' and ''m'', as shown in the table below.
Quantization
In quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics is the fundamental physical Scientific theory, theory that describes the behavior of matter and of light; its unusual characteristics typically occur at and below the scale of atoms. Reprinted, Addison-Wesley, 1989, It is ...
, angular momentum is ''quantized'' – that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in "quantum leaps" between certain allowed values. For any system, the following restrictions on measurement results apply, where is reduced Planck constant
The Planck constant, or Planck's constant, denoted by h, is a fundamental physical constant of foundational importance in quantum mechanics: a photon's energy is equal to its frequency multiplied by the Planck constant, and the wavelength of a ...
:
Derivation using ladder operators
A common way to derive the quantization rules above is the method of '' ladder operators''. The ladder operators for the total angular momentum are defined as:
Suppose is a simultaneous eigenstate of and (i.e., a state with a definite value for and a definite value for ). Then using the commutation relations for the components of , one can prove that each of the states and is either zero or a simultaneous eigenstate of and , with the same value as for but with values for that are increased or decreased by respectively. The result is zero when the use of a ladder operator would otherwise result in a state with a value for that is outside the allowable range. Using the ladder operators in this way, the possible values and quantum numbers for and can be found.
Since and have the same commutation relations as , the same ladder analysis can be applied to them, except that for there is a further restriction on the quantum numbers that they must be integers.
Visual interpretation
Since the angular momenta are quantum operators, they cannot be drawn as vectors like in classical mechanics. Nevertheless, it is common to depict them heuristically in this way. Depicted on the right is a set of states with quantum numbers , and for the five cones from bottom to top. Since , the vectors are all shown with length . The rings represent the fact that is known with certainty, but and are unknown; therefore every classical vector with the appropriate length and ''z''-component is drawn, forming a cone. The expected value of the angular momentum for a given ensemble of systems in the quantum state characterized by and could be somewhere on this cone while it cannot be defined for a single system (since the components of do not commute with each other).
Quantization in macroscopic systems
The quantization rules are widely thought to be true even for macroscopic systems, like the angular momentum L of a spinning tire. However they have no observable effect so this has not been tested. For example, if is roughly 100000000, it makes essentially no difference whether the precise value is an integer like 100000000 or 100000001, or a non-integer like 100000000.2—the discrete steps are currently too small to measure. For most intents and purposes, the assortment of all the possible values of angular momentum is effectively continuous at macroscopic scales.
Angular momentum as the generator of rotations
The most general and fundamental definition of angular momentum is as the ''generator'' of rotations. More specifically, let be a rotation operator, which rotates any quantum state about axis by angle . As , the operator approaches the identity operator, because a rotation of 0° maps all states to themselves. Then the angular momentum operator about axis is defined as:[
where 1 is the identity operator. Also notice that ''R'' is an additive morphism : ; as a consequence][
where exp is ]matrix exponential
In mathematics, the matrix exponential is a matrix function on square matrix, square matrices analogous to the ordinary exponential function. It is used to solve systems of linear differential equations. In the theory of Lie groups, the matrix exp ...
. The existence of the generator is guaranteed by the Stone's theorem on one-parameter unitary groups.
In simpler terms, the total angular momentum operator characterizes how a quantum system is changed when it is rotated. The relationship between angular momentum operators and rotation operators is the same as the relationship between Lie algebra
In mathematics, a Lie algebra (pronounced ) is a vector space \mathfrak g together with an operation called the Lie bracket, an alternating bilinear map \mathfrak g \times \mathfrak g \rightarrow \mathfrak g, that satisfies the Jacobi ident ...
s and Lie group
In mathematics, a Lie group (pronounced ) is a group (mathematics), group that is also a differentiable manifold, such that group multiplication and taking inverses are both differentiable.
A manifold is a space that locally resembles Eucli ...
s in mathematics, as discussed further below.
Just as J is the generator for rotation operators, L and S are generators for modified partial rotation operators. The operator
rotates the position (in space) of all particles and fields, without rotating the internal (spin) state of any particle. Likewise, the operator
rotates the internal (spin) state of all particles, without moving any particles or fields in space. The relation J = L + S comes from:
i.e. if the positions are rotated, and then the internal states are rotated, then altogether the complete system has been rotated.
SU(2), SO(3), and 360° rotations
Although one might expect (a rotation of 360° is the identity operator), this is ''not'' assumed in quantum mechanics, and it turns out it is often not true: When the total angular momentum quantum number is a half-integer (1/2, 3/2, etc.), , and when it is an integer, .[ Mathematically, the structure of rotations in the universe is ''not'' SO(3), the group of three-dimensional rotations in classical mechanics. Instead, it is SU(2), which is identical to SO(3) for small rotations, but where a 360° rotation is mathematically distinguished from a rotation of 0°. (A rotation of 720° is, however, the same as a rotation of 0°.)][
On the other hand, in all circumstances, because a 360° rotation of a ''spatial'' configuration is the same as no rotation at all. (This is different from a 360° rotation of the ''internal'' (spin) state of the particle, which might or might not be the same as no rotation at all.) In other words, the operators carry the structure of SO(3), while and carry the structure of SU(2).
From the equation , one picks an eigenstate and draws
which is to say that the orbital angular momentum quantum numbers can only be integers, not half-integers.
]
Connection to representation theory
Starting with a certain quantum state , consider the set of states for all possible and , i.e. the set of states that come about from rotating the starting state in every possible way. The linear span of that set is a vector space
In mathematics and physics, a vector space (also called a linear space) is a set (mathematics), set whose elements, often called vector (mathematics and physics), ''vectors'', can be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers called sc ...
, and therefore the manner in which the rotation operators map one state onto another is a ''representation'' of the group of rotation operators.
From the relation between J and rotation operators,
(The Lie algebras of SU(2) and SO(3) are identical.)
The ladder operator derivation above is a method for classifying the representations of the Lie algebra SU(2).
Connection to commutation relations
Classical rotations do not commute with each other: For example, rotating 1° about the ''x''-axis then 1° about the ''y''-axis gives a slightly different overall rotation than rotating 1° about the ''y''-axis then 1° about the ''x''-axis. By carefully analyzing this noncommutativity, the commutation relations of the angular momentum operators can be derived.[
(This same calculational procedure is one way to answer the mathematical question "What is the ]Lie algebra
In mathematics, a Lie algebra (pronounced ) is a vector space \mathfrak g together with an operation called the Lie bracket, an alternating bilinear map \mathfrak g \times \mathfrak g \rightarrow \mathfrak g, that satisfies the Jacobi ident ...
of the Lie group
In mathematics, a Lie group (pronounced ) is a group (mathematics), group that is also a differentiable manifold, such that group multiplication and taking inverses are both differentiable.
A manifold is a space that locally resembles Eucli ...
s SO(3) or SU(2)?")
Conservation of angular momentum
The Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian may refer to:
* Hamiltonian mechanics, a function that represents the total energy of a system
* Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics), an operator corresponding to the total energy of that system
** Dyall Hamiltonian, a modified Hamiltonian ...
''H'' represents the energy and dynamics of the system. In a spherically symmetric situation, the Hamiltonian is invariant under rotations:
where ''R'' is a rotation operator. As a consequence, , and then due to the relationship between J and ''R''. By the Ehrenfest theorem, it follows that J is conserved.
To summarize, if ''H'' is rotationally-invariant (The Hamiltonian function defined on an inner product space is said to have rotational invariance if its value does not change when arbitrary rotations are applied to its coordinates.), then total angular momentum J is conserved. This is an example of Noether's theorem
Noether's theorem states that every continuous symmetry of the action of a physical system with conservative forces has a corresponding conservation law. This is the first of two theorems (see Noether's second theorem) published by the mat ...
.
If ''H'' is just the Hamiltonian for one particle, the total angular momentum of that one particle is conserved when the particle is in a central potential (i.e., when the potential energy function depends only on ). Alternatively, ''H'' may be the Hamiltonian of all particles and fields in the universe, and then ''H'' is ''always'' rotationally-invariant, as the fundamental laws of physics of the universe are the same regardless of orientation. This is the basis for saying conservation of angular momentum
Angular momentum (sometimes called moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational analog of Momentum, linear momentum. It is an important physical quantity because it is a Conservation law, conserved quantity – the total ang ...
is a general principle of physics.
For a particle without spin, J = L, so orbital angular momentum is conserved in the same circumstances. When the spin is nonzero, the spin–orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer from L to S or back. Therefore, L is not, on its own, conserved.
Angular momentum coupling
Often, two or more sorts of angular momentum interact with each other, so that angular momentum can transfer from one to the other. For example, in spin–orbit coupling, angular momentum can transfer between L and S, but only the total J = L + S is conserved. In another example, in an atom with two electrons, each has its own angular momentum J1 and J2, but only the total J = J1 + J2 is conserved.
In these situations, it is often useful to know the relationship between, on the one hand, states where all have definite values, and on the other hand, states where all have definite values, as the latter four are usually conserved (constants of motion). The procedure to go back and forth between these bases is to use Clebsch–Gordan coefficients.
One important result in this field is that a relationship between the quantum numbers for :
For an atom or molecule with J = L + S, the term symbol
In atomic physics, a term symbol is an abbreviated description of the total spin and orbital angular momentum quantum numbers of the electrons in a multi-electron atom. So while the word ''symbol'' suggests otherwise, it represents an actual ''valu ...
gives the quantum numbers associated with the operators .
Orbital angular momentum in spherical coordinates
Angular momentum operators usually occur when solving a problem with spherical symmetry in spherical coordinates. The angular momentum in the spatial representation is
In spherical coordinates the angular part of the Laplace operator
In mathematics, the Laplace operator or Laplacian is a differential operator given by the divergence of the gradient of a Scalar field, scalar function on Euclidean space. It is usually denoted by the symbols \nabla\cdot\nabla, \nabla^2 (where \ ...
can be expressed by the angular momentum. This leads to the relation
When solving to find eigenstates of the operator , we obtain the following
where
are the spherical harmonics.
See also
* Runge–Lenz vector (used to describe the shape and orientation of bodies in orbit)
* Holstein–Primakoff transformation
* Jordan map ( Schwinger's bosonic model of angular momentum)
* Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector
* Angular momentum diagrams (quantum mechanics)
* Spherical basis
* Tensor operator
* Orbital magnetization
* Orbital angular momentum of free electrons
* Orbital angular momentum of light
Notes
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
{{Physics operator
Angular momentum
Quantum operators
Rotational symmetry