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In languages with quantitative poetic metres, such as Ancient Greek, Latin, Arabic, Sanskrit, and classical Persian, an anceps (plural ''ancipitia'' or ''(syllabae) ancipites'') is a position in a metrical pattern which can be filled by either a long or a short syllable. In general, ''anceps'' syllables in words, such as the first syllable of the Greek words (the Greek god of war) or "bitter", which can be treated by poets as either long or short, can be distinguished from ''anceps'' elements or positions in a metrical pattern, which are positions where either a long syllable or a short syllable can be used. Another distinction can be made between the ordinary ''anceps'' positions at the beginning or middle of a line of verse and the phenomenon of ''
brevis in longo In Greek and Latin metre, ''brevis in longo'' (; ) is a short syllable at the end of a line that is counted as long. The term is short for , meaning "a short yllablein place of a long lement" Although the phenomenon itself has been known since ...
'', which is when a short syllable at the end of a line counts as long because of the pause which follows. The word ''anceps'' comes from the Latin ''anceps, ancipitis'', meaning "two-headed, uncertain, unfixed". The usage of the word in a metrical context is, however, relatively modern, and is not found in ancient writers.


In Ancient Greek

''Anceps'' elements can be found in a variety of metres in Ancient Greek. ''Anceps'' elements in the middle or beginning of a line are characteristic of the
iambic trimeter The Iambic trimeter is a meter of poetry consisting of three iambic units (each of two feet) per line. In ancient Greek poetry and Latin poetry, an iambic trimeter is a quantitative meter, in which a line consists of three iambic ''metra''. E ...
of Greek drama. A typical iambic trimeter has the following form ("–" = long, "u" = short, and "x" = ''anceps''): :, x – u – , x – u – , x – u – , Except for the last element, an ''anceps'' or a ''longum'' is sometimes replaced by two short syllables (see
Resolution (meter) Resolution is the metrical phenomenon in poetry of replacing a normally long syllable in the meter with two short syllables. It is often found in iambic and trochaic meters, and also in anapestic, dochmiac and sometimes in cretic, bacchiac, and i ...
and Prosody (Greek)#Iambic). In the trochaic metres, on the other hand, the ''anceps'' comes at the end of each metron, for example the trochaic tetrameter
catalectic A catalectic line is a metrically incomplete line of verse, lacking a syllable at the end or ending with an incomplete foot. One form of catalexis is headlessness, where the unstressed syllable is dropped from the beginning of the line. A line ...
: :, – u – x , – u – x , , – u – x , – u – , ''Anceps'' elements are also found in the Aeolic metres, such as the Sapphic metre, in which the first three lines are as follows, opening with a trochaic metron: :, – u – x , – u u – , u – – , In other Aeolic metres, it is possible for a line to begin with two ''anceps'' syllables in succession, for example in the glyconic metre: :, x x , – u u – , u – , In such metres it is not allowed for both ''ancipitia'' to be short; both in the Aeolic metres and in the eupolidean, the usual form of the base is – – or – u, with u – occurring much less often. Martin West argues that this double ''anceps'' opening is a relic of an earlier period, also reflected in Sanskrit, when the beginning of a line of poetry had free scansion and only the end was fixed.M. L. West
"Three topics in Greek metre"
''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol. 32, No. 2 (1982), pp. 281-297; p. 287.
West points out that in Ancient Greek, an ''anceps'' is not found next to a short element. He argues that in most metres, every 2nd or 3rd element is compulsorily long, and can be considered a ''locus princeps'' (principal position). Either before or after a ''princeps'' there must be a short element. Between each ''princeps'' and the next there can be either an ''anceps'', a short, or two shorts. Some metres, such as the dactylic and anapaestic metres, have no ''anceps'' syllables, although they make liberal use of ''
biceps The biceps or biceps brachii ( la, musculus biceps brachii, "two-headed muscle of the arm") is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the scapula and join t ...
''.


In Latin

In Latin, in the metres of Roman comedy such as those of Plautus, ''anceps'' syllables are even more common than in the Greek equivalents. In Plautus the
iambic senarius Roman comedy is mainly represented by two playwrights, Plautus (writing between c.205 and 184 BC) and Terence (writing c.166-160 BC). The works of other Latin playwrights such as Livius Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, and Caecilius Statius are now los ...
(which is the equivalent of the Greek iambic trimeter) has this form: :, x – x – , x – x – , x – u – , The ''anceps'' elements, however, are not all equal, since the 2nd and 4th ''anceps'' elements, which are always short in Greek verse, tend to be short more frequently than the other ''ancipites''. These two are long in 60% of lines, the 1st and 3rd in 80% of lines, and the 5th in 90% of lines. In the first two metrons, any of the long or ''anceps'' positions can be resolved into two short syllables, but this happens less frequently in ''anceps'' positions than in long ones. Other metres which may have ''anceps'' positions in Latin are the bacchiac and cretic metres used in ''cantica'' (songs) in the plays of Plautus. For example, the bacchiac quaternarius is as follows: :, x – – , x – – , x – – , x – – , and the cretic as follows: :, – x – , – u – , , – x – , – u – , The hendecasyllable metre used by
Catullus Gaius Valerius Catullus (; 84 - 54 BCE), often referred to simply as Catullus (, ), was a Latin poet of the late Roman Republic who wrote chiefly in the neoteric style of poetry, focusing on personal life rather than classical heroes. His s ...
and
Martial Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial ; March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman poet from Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of ''Epigrams'', published in Rome between AD 86 and ...
has the following form, beginning in the same way as a glyconic line (see above): :, x x , – u u – u – u – – , The first two syllables are usually long, but occasionally in Catullus u – or – u is found. However, in other metres of Latin poetry, ''anceps'' syllables do not occur (except for the usual possibility of
brevis in longo In Greek and Latin metre, ''brevis in longo'' (; ) is a short syllable at the end of a line that is counted as long. The term is short for , meaning "a short yllablein place of a long lement" Although the phenomenon itself has been known since ...
at the end of the line). For example, in the dactylic hexameter, much use is made of ''
biceps The biceps or biceps brachii ( la, musculus biceps brachii, "two-headed muscle of the arm") is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the scapula and join t ...
'' syllables, but there is no ''anceps'' and no
resolution Resolution(s) may refer to: Common meanings * Resolution (debate), the statement which is debated in policy debate * Resolution (law), a written motion adopted by a deliberative body * New Year's resolution, a commitment that an individual m ...
: :, – uu , – uu , – uu , – uu , – uu , – x , There is also a pure form of iambic, used in
Catullus 4 Catullus 4 is a poem by the ancient Roman writer Catullus. The poem concerns the retirement of a well-traveled ship (referred to as a "''phaselus''", also sometimes cited as "'' phasellus''", a variant spelling). Catullus draws a strong analogy wit ...
, which also makes no use of ''anceps'' or resolution: :, u – u – , u – u – , u – u – ,


In Arabic

''Anceps'' elements are also common in classical Arabic poetry. Unlike Greek metres, in Arabic, an ''anceps'' can often be found next to a short element, as in the most common Arabic metre, the Ṭawīl, of which the half-verse has the following form: :, u – x , u – x – , u – x , u – u – , Another very common metre, the basīṭ, has this form: :, x – u – , x u – , – – u – , uu – , The eighth element in the Basīṭ metre is also theoretically ''anceps'' but in practice (in more than 99% of lines) it is always long. In the
rajaz Rajaz (, literally 'tremor, spasm, convulsion as may occur in the behind of a camel when it wants to rise') is a metre used in classical Arabic poetry. A poem composed in this metre is an ''urjūza''. The metre accounts for about 3% of surviving ...
metre, which is similar to the Greek iambic trimeter, the first two elements of each metron are ''anceps'', although it is rare for both elements to be short: :, x x u – , x x u – , x x u – , In some metres, such as the popular Kāmil metre, ''
biceps The biceps or biceps brachii ( la, musculus biceps brachii, "two-headed muscle of the arm") is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the scapula and join t ...
'' elements are used instead of ''anceps'': :, uu – u – , uu – u – , uu – u – ,


In Persian

In classical Persian poetry, apart from ''brevis in longo'' (see below), ''anceps'' elements are for the most part found only at the beginning of a line. In most metres which begin with two short syllables, the first may be replaced by a long. Thus the meter ''khafīf'' (the most common metre used in Saadi's Golestān), has the following form: :, x u – – , u – u – , u u – , In such verses, the ''anceps'' is long in about 80% of cases. The only other place in Persian metre where there is a choice between long and short is in the '' ruba'i'' metre used in Omar Khayyam's quatrains, which goes as follows: :, – – , – u u – , x x u – , – u u – , The two ''ancipitia'' may be either u – or – u, but not two shorts or two longs. (The first is slightly more common.)


In Sanskrit

In Sanskrit, the classical language of ancient India, in the early period in some metres the first part of the line was very free. For example, epic poems such as the ''
Mahābhārata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuru ...
'' were mostly composed in a type of stanza known as the ''śloka'', which developed from the
vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
''
anuṣṭubh ( sa, अनुष्टुभ्, ) is a meter and a metrical unit, found in both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit poetry, but with significant differences. By origin, an anuṣṭubh stanza is a quatrain of four lines. Each line, called a ''pāda'' ...
'' metre. A ''śloka'' usually consists of two 16-syllable half-verses of the following pattern: :, x x x x , u – – x , , x x x x , u – u x , However, this does not quite give the full picture, since the second metron , u – – x , could sometimes be , u u u x , , , – u u x , , , –, – – x , or , – u – x , . These variations are known as ''vipulas''. Another restriction is that in the 1st and 3rd metron, the pattern , x u u x , was not permitted (see
Śloka Shloka or śloka ( sa, श्लोक , from the root , Macdonell, Arthur A., ''A Sanskrit Grammar for Students'', Appendix II, p. 232 (Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 1927). in a broader sense, according to Monier-Williams's dictionary, is ...
). As with Greek, Latin, and Arabic, the last element of every Sanskrit metre is ''anceps'', that is, either long or ''
brevis in longo In Greek and Latin metre, ''brevis in longo'' (; ) is a short syllable at the end of a line that is counted as long. The term is short for , meaning "a short yllablein place of a long lement" Although the phenomenon itself has been known since ...
''. Another metre, the '' triṣṭubh'', which is commonly used in the Rigveda, the earliest form of Sanskrit, has four 11-syllable lines of the following pattern (the symbol "," represents a
caesura 300px, An example of a caesura in modern western music notation A caesura (, . caesuras or caesurae; Latin for "cutting"), also written cæsura and cesura, is a metrical pause or break in a verse where one phrase ends and another phrase begins. ...
or break between words). Thus the 5th element is an ''anceps'', which if short must be preceded by a word-break, if long it must be followed by one: :, x – x – , u u – – u – x , or :, x – x – – , u – – u – x , In the high classical period of Sanskrit literature (5th to 12th century CE), a large number of metres were developed which for the most part had no ''anceps'' elements. For example, the ''
mandākrāntā ( Sanskrit: ) is the name of a metre commonly used in classical Sanskrit poetry. The name in Sanskrit means "slow-stepping" or "slowly advancing". It is said to have been invented by India's most famous poet Kālidāsa, (5th century CE), who used ...
'' metre, made popular by Kālidāsa in his poem '' Meghadūta'', has the following form without variation:Deo, Ashwini S. (2007)
"The Metrical Organization of Classical Sanskrit Verse"
''Journal of Linguistics'', Vol. 43, No. 1 (Mar., 2007), pp. 63-114.
:, – – – – , u u u u u – , – u – – u – – , A third type of Indian metre, commonly used in Prakrit literature, but also sometimes in Sanskrit, is typified by the '' āryā'' metre. In metres of this type, lines of varying length are made up of feet which can be of any combination of long and short syllables, such as , – – , , , u u u u , , , – u u , , , u u – , or , u – u , , that adds up to the equivalent of four short syllables.


Anceps vs. brevis in longo

The ''anceps'' is distinct from ''
brevis in longo In Greek and Latin metre, ''brevis in longo'' (; ) is a short syllable at the end of a line that is counted as long. The term is short for , meaning "a short yllablein place of a long lement" Although the phenomenon itself has been known since ...
'', which refers to the phenomenon whereby a normally short syllable counts as long when used at the end of a line. The possibility of ''brevis in longo'' is found universally across all metres, while the ''anceps'' is found only in particular verse forms. Also, a ''brevis in longo'' is always felt to be long, while the ''anceps'' may be short or long freely.


References

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See also

* Prosody (Greek) * Prosody (Latin) *
Metres of Roman comedy Roman comedy is mainly represented by two playwrights, Plautus (writing between c.205 and 184 BC) and Terence (writing c.166-160 BC). The works of other Latin playwrights such as Livius Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, and Caecilius Statius are now ...
*
Arabic prosody ( ar, اَلْعَرُوض, ) is the study of poetic meters, which identifies the meter of a poem and determines whether the meter is sound or broken in lines of the poem. It is often called the ''Science of Poetry'' ( ar, عِلْم اَلشِ� ...
*
Persian metres Persian metres are patterns of long and short syllables in Persian poetry. Over the past 1000 years the Persian language has enjoyed a rich literature, especially of poetry. Until the advent of free verse in the 20th century, this poetry was alway ...
*
Brevis in longo In Greek and Latin metre, ''brevis in longo'' (; ) is a short syllable at the end of a line that is counted as long. The term is short for , meaning "a short yllablein place of a long lement" Although the phenomenon itself has been known since ...
Poetic rhythm Metrical feet