(
Greek: ; from earlier , ') is an
ancient Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic pe ...
word for "
tribal chief
A tribal chief or chieftain is the leader of a tribe, tribal society or chiefdom.
Tribe
The concept of tribe is a broadly applied concept, based on tribal concepts of societies of western Afroeurasia.
Tribal societies are sometimes categori ...
, lord, (military) leader".
[.] It is one of the two Greek titles traditionally translated as "king", the other being
basileus, and is inherited from
Mycenaean Greece
Mycenaean Greece (or the Mycenaean civilization) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece, spanning the period from approximately 1750 to 1050 BC.. It represents the first advanced and distinctively Greek civilization in mainland ...
. It is notably used in
Homeric Greek
Homeric Greek is the form of the Greek language that was used by Homer in the '' Iliad'', '' Odyssey'', and Homeric Hymns. It is a literary dialect of Ancient Greek consisting mainly of Ionic, with some Aeolic forms, a few from Arcadocypriot, ...
, e.g. for
Agamemnon. The feminine form is anassa, "queen" (, from ''wánassa'', itself from ''*wánakt-ja'').
Homeric Anax
Etymology
The word ''anax'' derives from the stem ''wanakt-'' (nominative , genitive ), and appears in
Mycenaean Greek
Mycenaean Greek is the most ancient attested form of the Greek language, on the Greek mainland and Crete in Mycenaean Greece (16th to 12th centuries BC), before the hypothesised Dorian invasion, often cited as the '' terminus ad quem'' for th ...
written in
Linear B
Linear B was a syllabic script used for writing in Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested form of Greek. The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries. The oldest Mycenaean writing dates to about 1400 BC. It is descended from ...
script as , ',
and in the feminine form as
, ''wa-na-sa'' (later , ''ánassa''). The
digamma
Digamma or wau (uppercase: Ϝ, lowercase: ϝ, numeral: ϛ) is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. It originally stood for the sound but it has remained in use principally as a Greek numeral for 6. Whereas it was originally called ''wa ...
was pronounced and was dropped very early on, even before the adoption of the
Phoenician alphabet
The Phoenician alphabet is an alphabet (more specifically, an abjad) known in modern times from the Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions found across the Mediterranean region. The name comes from the Phoenician civilization.
The Phoenician al ...
, by
eastern Greek dialects (e.g.
Ionic Greek); other dialects retained the digamma until well after the classical era.
The Greek title has been compared to
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
', a word for "merchant", but in the
Rigveda
The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only on ...
once used as a title of
Indra
Indra (; Sanskrit: इन्द्र) is the king of the devas (god-like deities) and Svarga (heaven) in Hindu mythology. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes/ref> I ...
. The word could then be from
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo ...
*', roughly "bringer of spoils" (compare the etymology of
lord
Lord is an appellation for a person or deity who has authority, control, or power (social and political), power over others, acting as a master, chief, or ruler. The appellation can also denote certain persons who hold a title of the Peerage ...
, "giver of bread"). However,
Robert Beekes
Robert Stephen Paul Beekes (; 2 September 1937 – 21 September 2017) was a Dutch linguist who was emeritus professor of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics at Leiden University and an author of many monographs on the Proto-Indo-European langu ...
argues there is no convincing IE etymology and the term is probably from the
pre-Greek substrate.
References
The word ''Anax'' in the ''
Iliad
The ''Iliad'' (; grc, Ἰλιάς, Iliás, ; "a poem about Ilium") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Ody ...
'' refers to
Agamemnon (, i.e. "leader of men") and to
Priam, high kings who exercise overlordship over other, presumably lesser, kings. This possible hierarchy of one "anax" exercising power over several local "basileis" probably hints to a proto-feudal political organization of
Aegean civilizations
Aegean civilization is a general term for the Bronze Age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea. There are three distinct but communicating and interacting geographic regions covered by this term: Crete, the Cyclades and the Greek mainla ...
. The
Linear B
Linear B was a syllabic script used for writing in Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested form of Greek. The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries. The oldest Mycenaean writing dates to about 1400 BC. It is descended from ...
adjective , ' ('), "of
he household ofthe king, royal", and the Greek word , ', "royal
welling palace" are derived from '. ''Anax'' is also a ceremonial epithet of the god
Zeus
Zeus or , , ; grc, Δῐός, ''Diós'', label= genitive Boeotian Aeolic and Laconian grc-dor, Δεύς, Deús ; grc, Δέος, ''Déos'', label= genitive el, Δίας, ''Días'' () is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek relig ...
("Zeus Anax") in his capacity as overlord of the Universe, including the rest of the gods. The meaning of
basileus as "king" in Classical Greece is due to a shift in terminology during the
Greek Dark Ages
The term Greek Dark Ages refers to the period of History of Greece, Greek history from the end of the Mycenaean civilization, Mycenaean palatial civilization, around 1100 BC, to the beginning of the Archaic Greece, Archaic age, around 750 ...
. In Mycenaean times, a appears to be a lower-ranking official (in one instance a chief of a professional guild), while in Homer, Anax is already an archaic title, most suited to legendary heroes and gods rather than for contemporary kings.
The word is found as an element in such names as
Hipponax ("king of horses"),
Anaxagoras ("king of the
agora"),
Pleistoanax ("king of the multitude"),
Anaximander ("king of the estate"),
Anaximenes ("enduring king"),
Astyanax
In Greek mythology, Astyanax (; grc, Ἀστυάναξ ''Astyánax'', "lord of the city") was the son of Hector, the crown prince of Troy, and his wife, Princess Andromache of Cilician Thebe."Astyanax". ''Oxford Classical Dictionary''. Oxford, ...
("high king", "overlord of the city"), Anaktoria ("royal
oman
Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of ...
), Iphiánassa ("mighty queen"), and many others. The archaic plural ''Ánakes'' (Ἄνακες, "Kings") was a common reference to the
Dioskouroi, whose temple was usually called the
Anakeion () and their yearly religious festival the ''Anákeia'' ().
The words ''ánax'' and ''ánassa'' are occasionally used in
Modern Greek
Modern Greek (, , or , ''Kiní Neoellinikí Glóssa''), generally referred to by speakers simply as Greek (, ), refers collectively to the dialects of the Greek language spoken in the modern era, including the official standardized form of the ...
as a deferential to royalty, whereas the word ''anáktoro
' and its derivatives are commonly used with regard to palaces.
Mycenaean Wanax
During the Mediterranean
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...
,
Mycenaean society was characterized by the creation of palaces and walled settlements. The wanax in
Mycenaean social hierarchy is generally accepted to function as a king, though with various roles which also stretch outside of administrative function.
The term wanax is believed to have eventually transformed into the homeric term ''anax,'' having fallen out of use with the collapse of
Mycenaean civilization during the
Late Bronze Age Collapse.
The Greek term for kingship would transfer to ''
basileus'', which is believed to have been a subservient title in
Mycenaean times akin for chieftains and local leaders.
Roles
The origin role of the wanax may be from warrior roots of migrating Indo-Europeans as a leadership role, eventually leading to the notion of kingship and the formal position and role of the wanax in Mycenaean times. The wanax during
Mycenaean times was at the apex of
Mycenaean society, presiding over a centralized state administration with a strong hierarchical organization; a common formula in the Bronze Age Mediterranean and Near East. This is hierarchically likened to a king, and as such much of the duties of the wanax were related to duties of administration, warfare, diplomacy, economics and religion.
Administrative Participation
Administratively,
Mycenaean political divisions broadly unfolded into a hierarchical division of wanax (king) with a broader structure which existed around the wanax in the form of
Mycenaean palatial authority and administration.
The wanax is also identified as the figure able to appoint individuals to rank within the administrative elite.
Much of this administrative body functioned as the limbs by which a wanax exercised authority and action, rather than directly partaking directly in every function of the state; with only two known inscription references on record of the wanax taking direct action within the internal administrative body.
However, much of the records available concerning the role of wanax deal with economic information due to the importance of such scribal records to
Mycenaean states, but does not discredit the participation of the wanax directly in other facets of the state.
The wanax would also delegate lands to members of this palatial elite and other hierarchic officials depending on their role, such as with the ''telestai''.
Some of these hierarchical positions under the wanax included the ''lawagetas'' (he who leads the people, a meaning which remains unclear), varying positions of which the meanings remain unknown (''hektai'', ''collectors'' of commodity and flock), scribes, mayors, vice-mayors, and varying styles of overseer. The term
basileus is also familiar to the
Mycenaean hierarchy as a local chieftain or leader, and would later come to replace wanax as the term for king after the collapse of
Mycenaean civilization.
This administrative body produced or obtained many artefacts by which they might increase their prestige,
or more practically manage the state of the wanax more effectively.
Mycenaean administrative artefacts include tablets which carry inscriptions from a scribal body, among which are tablets of purely administrative work (accounting for state supplies of resources), which would have been designed to support the wanax and state administration, and to be supported by a state administration.
Much of the surviving
Mycenaean administrative records which remain primarily deal with economic affairs, and the management of state resources.
Mycenaean states were active participants in diplomacy and trade, between their fellow
Mycenaean states and the broader interregional bodies which surrounded them.
Warfare
Fortifications dominate the
Mycenaean world, with such structures being erected across the Bronze Age, but particularly during the
Late Bronze Age Collapse (where the necessity for such fortifications intensified), before the end of
Mycenaean civilization. Being prolific builders of fortifications, wanaxes actively engaged in warlike campaigning in and around their states, though evidence for their direct participation is minimal. Evidence from
Pylos
Pylos (, ; el, Πύλος), historically also known as Navarino, is a town and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality Pylos-Nestoras, of which it is ...
suggests that the wanax was in possession of weapons specifically indicated as royal.
Much rather, stronger evidence exists that the wanax assigned military leadership to other members of the palatial elite. At
Pylos
Pylos (, ; el, Πύλος), historically also known as Navarino, is a town and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality Pylos-Nestoras, of which it is ...
, a name identified as ''e-ke-ra-wo'' is speculated to either be a wanax or another person of importance, and was tasked with managing the rowers of
Pylos
Pylos (, ; el, Πύλος), historically also known as Navarino, is a town and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part of the municipality Pylos-Nestoras, of which it is ...
in particular.
Ahhiyawa Texts
The
Ahhiyawa texts include correspondences between unnamed
Mycenaean wanaxes and the
Hittite kingdom. One such text from the collection, known as the ''Tawagalawa Letter'', was composed from the King of Hatti to an unnamed
Mycenaean wanax, and contained diplomatic correspondences regarding a man by the name of Piyamaradu, who had acted against the
Hittite King; and that the wanax should either return him or reject him.
The same text informs that the unnamed wanax had previously been in conflict with the
Hittites
The Hittites () were an Anatolian people who played an important role in establishing first a kingdom in Kussara (before 1750 BC), then the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom (c. 1750–1650 BC), and next an empire centered on Hattusa in north-cent ...
over the territory of ''
wilusa,'' though there is no further conflict between them.
The
Hittite King refers to the wanax not by title but as ''brother'' in these texts, a common practice in the ancient Near East in diplomatic correspondences with powers viewed as equal participants in interregional status. Another text which is heavily fragmented was sent by a wanax to the King of Hatti (likely
Muwattalli II) concerning the ownership of islands.
Economic Participation
Wanaxes have much heavier evidence of participation in state economics, taking a more direct role rather than the hierarchical allocations and lack of evidence for administrative participation. The lands of the wanax were closely tied to economic output of foods and commodity goods.
Economically, various records exist which refer to ''wanakteros,'' royal craftsmen, under the employ of the wanax.
These craftsmen came in a variety of roles, from practical purposes to commodity production,
though not all craftsmen were exclusively royal in nature in the Mycenaean economic sphere.
Additionally, the royal designation is applied not only to craftsmen within the economy, but to storehouses of jars believed to contain olive oil; indicating the presence of royal products which were circulated within
Mycenaean civilization and beyond.
Royal employment would indicate that the wanax acts much more closer to the economy as a sort of overseer or administrator than to many of the other tasks of the state. However, much of the records available concerning the role of wanax deal with economic information due to the importance of such scribal records to
Mycenaean states, but does not discredit the participation of the wanax directly in other facets of the state. Mycenaean elite also utilized luxury items to accentuate their status, and placed high value economically and politically on such items.
Another major economic function of the wanax was the participation in and organization of elaborate feasting amongst the
Mycenaean elite, and shared with those outside the immediate palatial elite as well. Feasts required extensive planning and organization on the part of the wanax and palatial administration, which needed to mobilize large amounts of resources in order to host such elaborate feasts.
A major feature of these feasts involved drinking, as evidenced by the many prestige drinking vessels recovered.
These processes economically involved the collection and feeding of vast quantities of livestock, luxury items for the elite (feasting equipment like luxury pottery and cups) and politically demonstrated the authority of the wanax with his elite.
One manner in which feasting further secured the wanax economically and politically was the inclusion of lower elites (local leaders and other non-palatial authorities under the wanax) in feasting, both building social connections to the wanax and economically persuading lower elites to dedicate resources to palatial feasting.
Religious Participation
The wanax were extensively involved in cultic practice during the Mycenean period of Greek religion, participating and playing a central role in
Mycenaean religion.
Much of this was involved in ritual practice from feasting to ceremonies dedicated to the gods, with the wanax being evidenced to perhaps been ritually involved in cultic activities which involve the use of oil and spice. Mention of oil and spice, and mention of the wanax being closely related to religious practice, has led some scholars to speculate the potential of kingship being semi-divine in
Mycenaean Greece; however evidence is lacking for this claim, perhaps from an overzealous desire to seek out connections between wanax and goddesses such as Demeter and Persephone. It is more likely the wanax was viewed as a mortal king. Wanaxes were especially involved in feasting, and therefore all religious feasting would've been reliant on the wanax to economically support and participate in.
See also
*
Anak
*
Anakes
*
Miletus (mythology)
Miletus ( Ancient Greek: Μίλητος) was a character from Greek mythology, the eponymous mythical founder of the city of Miletus.
Etymology
According to Robert Graves, Miletus' name tentatively suggests "red earth" ''miltos'' referring to ...
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
* {{cite journal, last=Yamagata, first=Naoko, year=1997, title=''ἄναξ'' and ''βασιλεύς'' in Homer, journal=
Classical Quarterly, volume=47, issue=1, pages=1–14, doi=10.1093/cq/47.1.1, issn=0009-8388
Ancient Greek titles
Royal titles
Titles of national or ethnic leadership