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''Zygiella x-notata'', sometimes known as the missing sector orb weaver or the silver-sided sector spider,
Factsheet 6: Missing-sector Orbweaver (Zygiella x-notata)
',
British Arachnological Society The British Arachnological Society (BAS) is the UK’s first body devoted exclusively to the study of arachnids. The primary objectives of the Society are to encourage interest in arachnology in people of all ages and to generate, promote and diss ...
, 2016. Retrieved 27 November 2016
is a spider species in the family
Araneidae Orb-weaver spiders are members of the spider family Araneidae. They are the most common group of builders of spiral wheel-shaped webs often found in gardens, fields, and forests. The English word "orb" can mean "circular", hence the English name ...
. They are solitary spiders, residing in daily-spun orb webs. ''Z. x-notata'' is a member of the genus ''
Zygiella ''Zygiella'' is a genus of Araneidae, orb-weaver spiders first described by Frederick Octavius Pickard-Cambridge, F. O. Pickard-Cambridge in 1902. In 2015, ''Parazygiella'' was determined to be a taxonomic synonym of ''Zygiella'', and its species ...
'', the orb-weaving spiders. The adult female is easily recognized by the characteristic leaf-like mark on her posterior
opisthosoma The opisthosoma is the posterior part of the body in some arthropods, behind the prosoma (cephalothorax). It is a distinctive feature of the subphylum Chelicerata (arachnids, horseshoe crabs and others). Although it is similar in most respects to ...
, caudal to the yellow-brown
cephalothorax The cephalothorax, also called prosoma in some groups, is a tagma of various arthropods, comprising the head and the thorax fused together, as distinct from the abdomen behind. (The terms ''prosoma'' and ''opisthosoma'' are equivalent to ''cepha ...
. The webs of ''Zygiella x-notata'' spiders are known for their characteristic missing sector, lending to the common name of spider as the "missing sector orb weaver." This species is distributed widely around the world, primarily inhabiting areas of human occupancy in northern Europe. Common prey include flying insects and other small insects. These get caught in the sticky spiral hub of the spider's orb web. Capture of prey occurs as the
foreleg A forelimb or front limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the cranial (anterior) end of a terrestrial tetrapod vertebrate's torso. With reference to quadrupeds, the term foreleg or front leg is often used instead ...
of ''Z. x-notata'' detects vibrations on the signal strand that connects the spider's retreat to the prey-capturing hub of the web. Webs are rebuilt daily by juvenile ''Zygiella x-notata'' and are renewed as needed by adult females. After
sexual maturity Sexual maturity is the capability of an organism to reproduce. In humans it might be considered synonymous with adulthood, but here puberty is the name for the process of biological sexual maturation, while adulthood is based on cultural definit ...
, males discontinue web production in search of
fecund Fecundity is defined in two ways; in human demography, it is the potential for reproduction of a recorded population as opposed to a sole organism, while in population biology, it is considered similar to fertility, the natural capability to pr ...
females. After reproduction during the summer months, males die. Females produce an egg sac in late autumn and juveniles emerge in late spring. After several moults, juvenile females are ready to reproduce.


Description

The adult female ''Zygiella x-notata'' has a body size of 5-11mm in length, while adult males have a body size up to 7mm. In adult females, the
carapace A carapace is a dorsal (upper) section of the exoskeleton or shell in a number of animal groups, including arthropods, such as crustaceans and arachnids, as well as vertebrates, such as turtles and tortoises. In turtles and tortoises, the unde ...
width is 1.5 mm. The dorsal
tibia The tibia (; ), also known as the shinbone or shankbone, is the larger, stronger, and anterior (frontal) of the two bones in the leg below the knee in vertebrates (the other being the fibula, behind and to the outside of the tibia); it conn ...
of the walking legs and
pedipalp Pedipalps (commonly shortened to palps or palpi) are the second pair of appendages of chelicerates – a group of arthropods including spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. The pedipalps are lateral to the chelicerae ("jaws") an ...
s contain a group of
trichobothria Trichobothria (singular trichobothrium) are elongate setae ("hairs") present in arachnids, various orders of insects, and myriapods that function in the detection of airborne vibrations and currents, and electrical charge. In 1883, Friedrich Dah ...
. There is only one
sensillum A sensillum (plural ''sensilla'') is an arthropod sensory organ protruding from the cuticle of exoskeleton, or sometimes lying within or beneath it. Sensilla appear as small hairs or pegs over an individual's body. Inside each sensillum there are ...
on the leg
metatarsus The metatarsal bones, or metatarsus, are a group of five long bones in the foot, located between the tarsal bones of the hind- and mid-foot and the phalanges of the toes. Lacking individual names, the metatarsal bones are numbered from the me ...
. The
prosoma The cephalothorax, also called prosoma in some groups, is a tagma of various arthropods, comprising the head and the thorax fused together, as distinct from the abdomen behind. (The terms ''prosoma'' and ''opisthosoma'' are equivalent to ''cepha ...
is yellow-brown, with a leaf-like mark on the
opisthosoma The opisthosoma is the posterior part of the body in some arthropods, behind the prosoma (cephalothorax). It is a distinctive feature of the subphylum Chelicerata (arachnids, horseshoe crabs and others). Although it is similar in most respects to ...
. The abdomen has a silvery sheen due to
guanine Guanine () ( symbol G or Gua) is one of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine ( uracil in RNA). In DNA, guanine is paired with cytosine. The guanine nucleoside is ...
crystals below the skin. Adult females are recognizable from their grey banded legs and pattern of dark grey waves on their dorsal side. Adult males are smaller than adult females, and display a dark dorsal exterior with dark brown legs and
cephalothorax The cephalothorax, also called prosoma in some groups, is a tagma of various arthropods, comprising the head and the thorax fused together, as distinct from the abdomen behind. (The terms ''prosoma'' and ''opisthosoma'' are equivalent to ''cepha ...
. The male abdomen is smaller and less marked with a shiny cream color than the female abdomen. In moderate climate, adults appear from July to October, sometimes even into December. In warmer regions, ''Z. x-notata'' is active all year. The specific name ''x-notata'' is Latin for "x-shaped mark".


Common names

The common name missing sector
orb weaver Orb-weaver spiders are members of the spider family Araneidae. They are the most common group of builders of spiral wheel-shaped webs often found in gardens, fields, and forests. The English word "orb" can mean "circular", hence the English name ...
comes from the distinctive structure of ''Z. x-notata'''s web. Characteristically, this species is known to build a web with a missing sector containing solely a signal thread in the top half. The species has also been referred to commonly as the silver-sided sector spider.


Taxonomy

''Zygiella x-notata'' was named by Clerck in 1757. The taxonomic status of the species is still considered valid. * ''Zygiella x-notata'' (Clerck, 1757) — Holarctic, Neotropical


Habitat and distribution


Habitat

''Zygiella x-notata'' is common in areas inhabited by humans, including on boats and docks. They are also found on urban vegetation like bushes or shrubs. Females construct an orb-web preferentially near human settlements, and this is where they live out their adult lives. ''Zygiella x-notata'' has been discovered on cliffs and bushes in Britain and across Europe.


Distribution

This species of orb-weaving spider natively inhabits areas of Europe, and is invasive in some coastal areas of the Americas. They can also be found in some other locations around the world. ''Zygiella x-notata'' is abundant in the west Palearctic region, and is also distributed across the Holarctic. Primarily, ''Z. x-notata'' is widespread across much of Britain, as well as Western and Central Europe.


Web aggregations

As urban colonizers, ''Zygiella x-notata'' often aggregate around human settlements. Ideal locations for web building include constructions such as walls, fences, and window frames, as these provide sufficient anchors for urban web development. Because these spaces are in high demand as optimal web building sites, they are often inhabited by multiple individual ''Zygiella x-notata'' spiders, where each individual builds and resided in their own web in close proximity with other individuals. Despite their characterization as solitary spiders, the species aggregate up to 25 individual spiders per square meter near human constructions.


Diet


Feeding

Juvenile ''zygiella x-notata'' characteristically build a new web each day until they reach adulthood. Adult ''Zygiella x-notata'' spin orb-webs which are used to capture and incapacitate prey. Rather than building a new web every day as juveniles do, adult female Z''. x-notata'' build an initial web and renew it nearly every day as needed. The female spider will sit in her retreat on the web, which is attached to a signal strand in the characteristic missing orb-web sector. When prey are caught in the web, the female can thus detect its presence through vibrations in the signal strand. As these vibrations are detected, she climbs down the silken signal thread to the hub of the web where the prey has been trapped. Prey type is dependent on the spider's native habitat and geographical location, but usually consists of flying prey such as Diptera. Male Z''ygiella x-notata'' feed similarly to females as juveniles, but once they reach adulthood they no longer build webs in order to capture prey, rather focusing on successful reproduction.


Predatory feeding behavior

There are four stages of predatory behavior in ''Zygiella x-notata'' as described by Venner et al.: first, the "waiting phase" occurs, in which the spider is immobile in its retreat in the top corner of the web. A
foreleg A forelimb or front limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the cranial (anterior) end of a terrestrial tetrapod vertebrate's torso. With reference to quadrupeds, the term foreleg or front leg is often used instead ...
rests on the signal thread that spans from the spider's retreat to the hub of the web. Second is a "detection phase", where after prey has come into contact with the web, the spider moves toward it down the signal thread. Third is a "capture phase" in which the prey is incapacitated by the spider and subsequently moved back toward the retreat. ''Zygiella x-notata'' has been observed to bite and wrap its prey with silk during this phase as a means of incapacitation, prior to transportation to the retreat. Finally, there is an "ingestion phase" where the spider eats the prey in its retreat and removes the prey's remains from the web.


Vibratory signals in prey capture

''Zygiella x-notata'' spiders have the capacity to detect vibratory signals in both the air and via web vibrations. When building an orb-web to initiate the prey-capture behavior, female ''Zygiella x-notata'' can detect the presence of potential prey through air-borne vibrations. This stimulates web-spinning behaviors, even prior to prey capture. Once vibratory signals are detected, female spiders engage in one of several potential behavioral response patterns: 1) at least one leg is slightly moved; 2) the spider's front legs are repeatedly lifted off the signal thread; or 3) the spider walks out of its retreat and scurries down the signal thread to the hub of the web. In a characteristic and repeatable series of events, the spider exits the hub, rushing in the direction of the source of the initial vibratory signal. Once the spider has found the source of the vibration, it touches the prey with its first pair of legs. The spider then grabs the prey using its first three pairs of legs, and bites it. Consequently, if no further vibrations (either threadborne or airborne) are detected once the spider has entered the hub of the web, ''Z. x-notata'' will actively vibrate the web to detect motionless dead prey or dirt particles hanging in the web. This "web-jerking" procedure, occurring through flexes in the spider's forelegs in contact with the web radii, is repeated until the spider finds a prey item in the web by following the anomalous vibration.


Web


Web type

''Zygiella x-notata'' spiders build an orb web in areas frequently occupied by humans. The orb web has a spiral-like appearance with radii converging to a central hub. During the early construction of the web, a nonsticky spiral is formed to later be replaced with a sticky spiral. Characteristic of the species, a "missing sector" is often present in the top half of the web that is crossed by a signal thread connecting the hub of the web to the spider's retreat. The signal thread is variable in length, reaching anywhere from 4 cm to 50 cm long.


Effects of prey on web-building

The predatory feeding behavior of the missing sector orb weaver influences changes in web construction. Web building was found to be stimulated by the presence of prey, resulting in spiders in the presence of prey to spin their webs earlier than spiders in the absence of prey. However, web building duration decreased in the presence of prey and thus web sizes were found to be smaller across the sample population. These characteristically smaller webs are spun with narrower web meshing, aiding in the quick capture of prey. Although these webs were smaller than webs built in the absence of prey, they provided a quick method to trap prey. This exemplifies ''Zygiella x-notatas capacity to sense changes in local prey availability. A similar study conducted by Venner ''et al.'' found that this species of orb weaving spiders changes its web building behavior in response to new information detected during prey capture. When the spiders experienced the act of capturing and consuming prey, they adapted their web construction and energy expenditure in anticipation of the next capture.


Web construction

Web construction occurs through an observable and repeatable process that becomes more organized with increasingly identical webs as the adult female spider ages. According to Anotaux ''et al.'' there are four steps to the process of web construction. First, the spider constructs an outer frame and radial threads. Second, she produces an auxiliary spiral. Third, she builds a sticky capture spiral meant to trap local prey. Finally, she remodels the center of the web – the hub – which connects to the signal thread as a prey detection device for the spider which lay in wait in her retreat.


Web longevity

Juvenile ''Z. x-notata'' spiders have been found to rebuild their webs daily in order to catch prey. Web renewal typically occur at the end of the night for both juvenile and adult spiders. Generally, the longevity of ''Zygiella x-notata'' webs is approximately one day.


Influence of aging and experience on web construction

Multiple studies have shown that the composition and construction frequency of ''Zygiella x-notata'' orb webs change with increasing age and experience in the resident female. Anotaux ''et al.'' determined that older ''Z. x-notata'' spiders invest less silk in the production of their webs as compared to younger spiders in both short- and long-lived varieties. Older adult female spiders were also found to have greater variation in their orb webs than younger adult females, reflecting a decline in locomotor functioning correlated with increased web irregularity in older age. Venner ''et al.'' established a correlation between prey capture and ingestion, and web rebuilding practices among adult female ''Z. x-notata''. Spiders who engaged in the four stages of predatory behavior and subsequently rebuilt their webs were found to invest less in the capture area of their newly built web.


Web anomalies

Spiders of the species ''Zygiella x-notata'' consider previous elements of web construction in the building of future webs. This is an imperfect process, susceptible to web building errors. Anomalies in web structure among this species have been found to result from positional modification of a spider on the radial strands of the web. When the spider's fourth leg is oriented peripherally to the web during web building, opposite the hub of the web, anomalies in web construction are common. In this position, the spider cannot detect the correct attachment position of the inner spiral to the next radial thread. Web anomalies are detrimental to spider success, as they can alter the performance of the web, including both prey capture ability and predation avoidance.


Characteristic missing web sector

''Zygiella x-notata'' is known for its flexibility in web building with the missed sector orb webs that are woven by this species. Even though the web construction behaviors are innate, there is a characteristic flexibility in these spiders when they alter their webs according to their advantage and safety. Based on its knowledge of its retreat, Zygiella species typically leave a missing sector especially when creating webs on a door or window frame. Sometimes after building the complete webs, spiders will go back through and fill in the missing sector or they will not fill in a certain sector as per circumstances. The process of creating the missing sector involves switching direction in that region during the spiral or biting through threads to remove spirals in that section after building the full web.


Reproduction and life cycle


Life cycle

''Zygiella x-notata'' has an annual life cycle. Female spiders lay eggs in autumn, predominantly during the months of September and October. While males die soon after mating, surviving females protect the egg sacs over winter from Hymenopteran parasites. Egg sacs hatch in spring, and spiderlings subsequently disperse. Spiderlings reach their adult
instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ...
in August, when mating begins again, and the cycle starts anew. Once in the adult stage, female ''Zygiella x-notata'' has a life span of approximately 5–7 months.


Egg sacs

Egg sac Spiders (order (biology), order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude spider silk, silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank ...
s are used in
arachnid Arachnida () is a class of joint-legged invertebrate animals (arthropods), in the subphylum Chelicerata. Arachnida includes, among others, spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, camel spiders, whip spiders and vinegar ...
species, providing protection to developing spiderlings against both predators and parasites. The egg sac provides spiderlings with a sufficient and sustainable embryological microclimate suited to development. Egg sacs also provide spiderlings with sufficient nutrients to survive through hatching. ''Zygiella x-notata'' is an
iteroparous Semelparity and iteroparity are two contrasting reproductive strategies available to living organisms. A species is considered semelparous if it is characterized by a single reproductive episode before death, and iteroparous if it is characteri ...
species, with individual spiders engaging in multiple reproductive events throughout the course of their adult lifetime. Females of the species ''Zygiella x-notata'' produce egg sacs in late autumn. Spiderlings emerge in mid-to-late spring of the following year.


Structure

The egg sacs of the species ''Zygiella x-notata'' are elliptical in structure. They range from a white color to a yellow-brown color. The eggs are protected by a series of complex airy structures constructed from sequential layers of silk meshing. These layers of silk enclose and protect the eggs from predators, parasites, and the risks of premature hatching. The structural composition of ''Zygiella'' egg sacs is similar with that of most other species belonging to the same family of orb-weaving spiders,
Araneidae Orb-weaver spiders are members of the spider family Araneidae. They are the most common group of builders of spiral wheel-shaped webs often found in gardens, fields, and forests. The English word "orb" can mean "circular", hence the English name ...
. The egg sacs are uniform in shape and structure, consisting of an inner basic layer, an intermediary double insulation layer, and an outer layer. These layers are in place to provide the developing spiderlings with protection from harmful external ecosystems and predators.


Mating

''Zygiella x-notata'' engage in a variety of mating behaviors, including male choosiness, mate guarding, and vibrational courtship. Female ''Zygiella x-notata'' store male sperm after mating, subsequently producing one egg sac during late autumn. Females that survive through winter sometimes produce additional egg sacs in the spring with their previous mate's stored sperm.


Male choosiness

Adult male ''Zygiella x-notata'' spiders have been found to be choosy for female mates in high competition environments. Bel-Venner ''et al''. show that under conditions of weak intrasexual competition, males pair opportunistically with females, whereas in highly competitive environments, males selectively guard females according to their own competitive ability. This demonstrated a particular size assortative mating behavior in the differential mating preferences of ''Z. x-notata'' males, where large males frequently chose to mate with larger, more fecund females, and smaller males chose to mate with smaller females.


Mate guarding

Premoult females are a vital resource in the reproductive success of male ''Zygiella x-notata''. Prior to copulation, male spiders try to guard a female before her final
moult In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer ...
, when she becomes sexually receptive. By guarding the female, a male expects to be his guarded female's first copulation after becoming sexually receptive. This provides a significant reproductive benefit to the male, as mate guarding tends to lead to reproductive success. Bel-Venner & Venner studied the precopulatory mate guarding behavior of ''Zygiella x-notata''. They found mate guarding to be a widespread phenomenon among their population of interest, and observed strong competition between males to guard females with the frequent action of male takeover. As predicted by
sexual selection Sexual selection is a mode of natural selection in which members of one biological sex choose mates of the other sex to mate with (intersexual selection), and compete with members of the same sex for access to members of the opposite sex (in ...
theory, larger males were found to be more successful at guarding females and evicting smaller males from their guarding positions. Although there is an energetic cost to mate-guarding, males who engage in this behavior incur differential reproductive success on the basis of increased body size and competitive ability.


Vibrational courtship

The orb webs of female ''Zygiella x-notata'' spiders hang vertically under high tension conditions as two-dimensional sheets of silk. Male spiders of this species have been found to utilize the high tension of the web's silk threads to send vibrational courtship signals to the resident female. A study conducted by Tarsitano & Kirchner analyzed the vibratory patterns associated with this courtship ritual. Male ''Z. x-notata'' spiders were found to produce three types of vibrational courtship signals on the female's web. A periodic "pulling" signal, a "plucking" signal, and a "burping" signal were identified. The "pulling" and "plucking" signals are both performed by the male immediately prior to copulation as a means of arousing the resident female. These signals involve the male using his forelegs to "pull" or "pluck" a segment of silk he previously threaded into the signal strand on the female's web. The third, "burping" signal is produced by the male as he approaches the female in her retreat, and is likely used to warn the female that he is a potential mate, and not prey. This "burping" practice prevents the female from attacking the male as he begins engaging in the "pulling" and "plucking" pre-courtship signaling. The temporal patterning of these vibrational courtship signals enable the female to distinguish between a potential mate and potential prey items in her web.


Social behavior

''Zygiella x-notata'' is a species of solitary orb-weaving spiders. Apart from mating and spiderling kin-related sociality prior to dispersal, adult ''Z. x-notata'' do not interact socially with other individuals of the same species. However, the close proximity in which webs are built in their natural environments (i.e. near or on human constructions) may lead to aggressive, territorial behavior between individuals.


Within species aggression

With a growing human population, many ''Zygiella x-notata'' have adapted to living on or near human constructions in urban, suburban, and rural areas. Urban environments provide orb web building spiders, such as ''Zygiella x-notata'', with sufficient locations in which to build their webs. However, high quality web building sites are coveted by many individuals of both the ''Zygiella'' species and other web-spinning species. In an urbanized environment, ''Zygiella x-notata'' exhibit high within-species aggression. This is in part due to the favorability of diverse, but stable, aggressiveness types in urban dwelling spiders. Aggressiveness may facilitate high density aggregations of spiders. Aggregations have been observed to consist of up to 25 individual spiders per square meter. However, high aggression rates within a population could prove costly. Increased aggression results in higher incidences of injury and death due to greater inter-individual fighting. Consequently, this aggressive typology is constrained to urban dwelling ''Zygiella'' found in web aggregations near preferential habitual spaces, indicating evolving behavioral plasticity in the species.


Predators


Wasps

Wasps are active predators of spiders, particularly engaging in predation behaviors during the spiders' reproductive period. Wasp attacks by the species ''
Vespula germanica ''Vespula germanica'', the European wasp, German wasp, or German yellowjacket, is a species of wasp found in much of the Northern Hemisphere, native to Europe, Northern Africa, and temperate Asia. It has spread and become well-established in m ...
'' are common in ''Zygiella x-notata.'' Male spiders and smaller females are at greater risk of predation by wasps.


Male preference

Males are located for predation by wasps more frequently than females. There are multiple reasons why this occurs. First, adult male ''Zygiella x-notata'' do not produce orb webs and thus reside on window frames or other human structures. This leaves males at a disadvantage, as they can be more easily identified by wasps. Second, the dorsal side of the male, as well as the male's legs and cephalothorax, appear significantly darker than that of the female. When placed in contrast with their residence on human settlements, the dark color of the male is easily visible and thus preferentially located by wasps. Third, male spiders engage in mate guarding behaviors. While guarding their potential female mates, males are typically located on the female's web, outside of her retreat. Here, the male is vulnerable to predation due to his increased visibility.


Predation avoidance

Due to the significant threat of predation by wasps, ''Zygiella x-notata'' has developed defensive behaviors to avoid predation threats. One tactic used by ''Zygiella x-notata'' to escape predation by wasps is jumping from webs or off human constructions. In males particularly, this survival behavior consists of jumping down the frame of a window, where he can no longer be located by the wasp. In female spiders, predation avoidance involves a tactic known as "web cleaning". Females' web cleaning behavior involves throwing prey remains out of the web after eating. If either prey or an inanimate object remain stuck on the web, the females will remove the section of web containing the prey or object, and rebuild the section of web. This behavior decreases the predation risk to females by lowering the wasp's visibility threshold. Additionally, web cleaning behaviors often occur at night to reduce the risk of potential predation. During the day, the female remains in her retreat to reduce visibility to wasps, thereby reducing predation risk.


Consequences of predation

Consequences of predation by wasps include decreased reproductive success of an individual ''Zygiella x-notata'' as a result of capture by the wasp, displacement of the spider upon jumping from the web or other structures, and prey theft by the wasp. These all pose physiological and energetic costs to the spider, occasionally resulting in physical impairment or death.


Invasive species

''Zygiella x-notata'' is considered an invasive species in California, however they are not harmful to humans and they are not known to bite either. The only obstruction they seem to cause is disrupting garden work with their large webs.


See also

* ''
Araneus mitificus ''Araneus mitificus'', commonly known as the kidney garden spider or pale orb weaver is a species of orb-weaver spider found in South, East, and Southeast Asia. Taxonomy ''Araneus mitificus'' belongs to the genus ''Araneus''. It is classified ...
''


References

* Le Guelte, Louis. 1966. Structure de la toile de Zygiella x-notata Cl. (Araignées, Argiopidae) et facteurs qui régissent le comportement de l'Araignée pendant la construction de la toile. Thèse, Université de Nancy. * Levi, Herbert Walter
"The orb-weaver genus ''Zygiella'' (Araneae, Araneidae)."
in ''Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology'', vol. 146, no. 5, p. 267-290, Cambridge 1974. * Weissmann, Monika
''Web-building and prey-capture in two orb-weavers.''
1987.


External links


Video showing ''Zygiella x-notata''
{{Taxonbar, from=Q205920 Araneidae Spiders of Europe Holarctic spiders Spiders described in 1757 Taxa named by Carl Alexander Clerck