The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan
(; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a
Mongol-led
imperial dynasty of China and a
successor state
Succession of states is a concept in international relations regarding a successor state that has become a sovereign state over a territory (and populace) that was previously under the sovereignty of another state. The theory has its roots in 19th- ...
to the
Mongol Empire after
its division. It was established by
Kublai
Kublai ; Mongolian script: ; (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder of the Yuan dynasty of China and the fifth khagan-emperor of the ...
, the fifth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire from the
Borjigin clan, and lasted from 1271 to 1368. In orthodox
Chinese historiography, the Yuan dynasty followed the
Song dynasty and preceded the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
.
Although
Genghis Khan had been enthroned with the
Han-style title of
Emperor in 1206
and the
Mongol Empire had ruled territories including modern-day
northern China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Han style, and the conquest was not complete until 1279 when the Southern Song dynasty was defeated in the
Battle of Yamen
The naval Battle of Yamen () (also known as the Naval Battle of Mount Ya; ) took place on 19 March 1279 and is considered to be the last stand of the Song dynasty against the invading Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Although outnumbered 10:1, the Yua ...
. His realm was, by this point, isolated from the other Mongol-led khanates and controlled most of modern-day
China and its surrounding areas, including modern-day
Mongolia. It was the first dynasty founded by a non-Han ethnicity that ruled all of
China proper
China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the "core" regions of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. This term is used to express a distinction between the "core" regions pop ...
.
In 1368, following the defeat of the Yuan forces by the Ming dynasty, the Genghisid rulers retreated to the
Mongolian Plateau
The Mongolian Plateau is the part of the Central Asian Plateau lying between 37°46′-53°08′N and 87°40′-122°15′E and having an area of approximately . It is bounded by the Greater Hinggan Mountains in the east, the Yin Mountains to ...
and continued to rule until 1635 when they surrendered to the
Later Jin dynasty (which later evolved into the
Qing dynasty). The rump state is known in historiography as the
Northern Yuan dynasty.
Some of the Yuan emperors mastered the
Chinese language
Chinese (, especially when referring to written Chinese) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in Greater China. About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the ...
, while others only used their native
Mongolian language and the
'Phags-pa script.
After the division of the Mongol Empire, the Yuan dynasty was the khanate ruled by the successors of
Möngke. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the
Mandate of Heaven. The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty and accorded him the
temple name
Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dyna ...
Taizu. In the edict titled ''Proclamation of the Dynastic Name'' issued in 1271,
Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the
Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors to the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
.
In addition to
Emperor of China, Kublai also claimed the title of
Great Khan
Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...
, supreme over the other successor khanates: the
Chagatai, the
Golden Horde, and the
Ilkhanate. As such, the Yuan was also sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan. However, while the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was at times recognized by the western khans, their subservience was nominal and each continued its own separate development.
Name
In 1271,
Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan (), establishing the Yuan dynasty.
"Dà Yuán" () is from the clause "" () in the ''
Commentaries on the
Classic of Changes'' section regarding the first hexagram
Qián ().
The counterpart in the
Mongolian language was ''Dai Ön Ulus'', also rendered as ''Ikh Yuan Üls'' or ''Yekhe Yuan Ulus''. In Mongolian, ''Dai Ön'' (Middle Mongol transliteration of Chinese "Dà Yuán") was often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" (; lit. "Great Mongol State"), which resulted in the form (; ),
[''The Early Mongols: Language, Culture and History'' by Volker Rybatzki & Igor de Rachewiltz, p. 116.] meaning "Great Yuan Great Mongol State" ().
As per modern historiographical norm, the "Yuan dynasty" refers to the realm based in China. However, the
Han-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire
Mongol Empire.
This usage is seen in the writings, including non-Chinese texts, produced during the time of the Yuan dynasty.
In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the ''de facto''
disintegrated nature of the Mongol Empire.
The Yuan dynasty is also known by westerners as the "Mongol dynasty" or "Mongol Dynasty of China", similar to the names "Manchu dynasty" or "Manchu Dynasty of China" which were used by westerners for the
Qing dynasty. Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan", which particularly appeared on some Yuan maps, since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of
Great Khan
Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...
. Nevertheless, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271.
History
Background
Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes of the steppes and became
Great Khan
Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...
in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son,
Ögedei Khan, the Mongols
destroyed the weakened
Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of
northern China. Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in
Xingzhou,
Hebei
Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and 0 ...
. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother
Sorghaghtani. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers.
Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son,
Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued
paper money
A banknote—also called a bill (North American English), paper money, or simply a note—is a type of negotiable promissory note, made by a bank or other licensed authority, payable to the bearer on demand.
Banknotes were originally issued ...
, revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth. He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in
Inner Mongolia, later renamed
Shangdu.
Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders,
Shi Tianze
Shi Tianze (; 1202 – 5 March 1275) was a general in the early period of the Yuan dynasty. Later, he was promoted to the post of deputy prime minister and became the first Han minister of the Yuan dynasty. He played a key role in early Yuan ...
,
Liu Heima (, aka Liu Ni), and the Khitan
Xiao Zhala () defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier (), Tabuyir (), and Zhongxi, the son of Xiaozhaci () commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan.
Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese
Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without a successor. Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother,
Ariq Böke
Ariq Böke (after 1219–1266), the components of his name also spelled Arigh, Arik and Bukha, Buka ( mn, Аригбөх, Arigböh, ; ), was the seventh and youngest son of Tolui and a grandson of Genghis Khan. After the death of his brother the ...
, was challenging his claim to the throne. Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan. A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war. Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264. All of the three western khanates (
Golden Horde,
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate, or Chagatai Ulus ( xng, , translit=Čaɣatay-yin Ulus; mn, Цагаадайн улс, translit=Tsagaadain Uls; chg, , translit=Čağatāy Ulusi; fa, , translit=Xânât-e Joghatây) was a Mongol and later Turkicized kh ...
and
Ilkhanate) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan. Civil strife had
permanently divided the Mongol Empire.
Rule of Kublai Khan
Early years
Instability troubled the early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson
Kaidu
Kaidu (Middle Mongol: , Modern Mongol: / , ; ; c. 1230 – 1301) was a grandson of the Mongol khagan Ögedei (1185–1241) and thus leader of the House of Ögedei and the ''de facto'' khan of the Chagatai Khanate, a division of the Mongol Em ...
refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain. The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south. Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince
Wonjong as the ruler of the
Kingdom of Goryeo (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state. Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court. He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to the Song.
Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects. He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the
traditional monopolies on salt and
iron
Iron () is a chemical element with Symbol (chemistry), symbol Fe (from la, Wikt:ferrum, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 element, group 8 of the periodic table. It is, Abundanc ...
. He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left the local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged. However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian
imperial examinations and divided Yuan society into three, later four, classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in the government, but their official rank was nebulous.
Founding the dynasty
Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from
Karakorum in Mongolia to
Khanbaliq in 1264, constructing a new city near the former
Jurchen capital
Zhongdu, now modern
Beijing, in 1266. In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the
Mandate of Heaven and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan () in the style of a traditional Chinese dynasty. The name of the dynasty originated from the ''
I Ching'' and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force". Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu () of the dynasty. The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history. The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating the government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession. Khublai evoked his public image as a
sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration, while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes.
Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the
Silk Road trade network by protecting the
Mongol postal system, constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper banknotes (). During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing
coins
A coin is a small, flat (usually depending on the country or value), round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order t ...
; however, under
Külüg Khan
Külüg Khan ( Mongolian: Хүлэг; Mongolian script: ; ), born Khayishan (Mongolian: Хайсан ; , mn, Хайсан, meaning "wall"), also known by the temple name Wuzong (Emperor Wuzong of Yuan; ) (August 4, 1281 – January 27, 1311), P ...
coins were completely replaced by paper money. It wasn't until the reign of
Toghon Temür
Toghon Temür ( mn, Тогоонтөмөр; Mongolian script: ; ; 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Huizong of Yuan () bestowed by the Northern Yuan dynasty and by his posthumous ...
that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation.
The ''
Pax Mongolica
The ''Pax Mongolica'' (Latin for "Mongol Peace"), less often known as ''Pax Tatarica'' ("Tatar Peace"), is a historiographical term modelled after the original phrase ''Pax Romana'' which describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the ...
'', Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West. Kublai expanded the
Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan. He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant
Marco Polo, who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like
Christopher Columbus to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.
Military conquests and campaigns
After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south. Kublai besieged
Xiangyang between 1268 and 1273, the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangzi River basin. An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertaken
against Japan in 1274. The Duan family ruling the
Kingdom of Dali
The Dali Kingdom, also known as the Dali State (; Bai: Dablit Guaif), was a state situated in modern Yunnan province, China from 937 until 1253. In 1253, it was conquered by the Mongols but members of its former ruling dynasty continued to a ...
in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China. The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty. The
Tusi chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the
Chiefdom of Bozhou
The Chiefdom of Bozhou (), ruled by the Yang clan, was an autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom established by Yang Duan () during the Tang dynasty. After he conquered the Bozhou Prefecture (centred on modern Zunyi) from the Nanzhao Kingdom, Yang Duan was ...
which was recognized by the Song dynasty and Tang dynasty also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty and later by the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the
Shu Han era king Huoji who helped
Zhuge Liang against
Meng Huo. They were also recognized by the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
.
Kublai captured the Song capital of
Hangzhou in 1276, the wealthiest city of China, after the surrender of the Southern Song Han Chinese
Emperor Gong of Song
Emperor Gong of Song (2 November 1271 – 1323), personal name Zhao Xian, was the 16th emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the seventh emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. The sixth son of his predecessor, Emperor Duzong, Zhao Xian ca ...
. Emperor Gong of Song (personal name Zhao Xian) was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal
Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty. Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as
Emperor Bing of Song
Zhao Bing (12 February 1272 – 19 March 1279), also known as Emperor Bing of Song or Bing, Emperor of Song (宋帝昺), was the 18th and last emperor of the Song dynasty of China, who ruled as a minor between 6 and 7 years of age.
He was a ...
, who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese General
Zhang Hongfan led a predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at the
battle of Yamen
The naval Battle of Yamen () (also known as the Naval Battle of Mount Ya; ) took place on 19 March 1279 and is considered to be the last stand of the Song dynasty against the invading Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Although outnumbered 10:1, the Yua ...
in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty. The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.
The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army" () out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" ().
Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained the Mongol treasury. Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals. Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems. Kublai's
second invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of an
inauspicious typhoon. Kublai botched his campaigns against
Annam, Champa, and
Java, but won a
Pyrrhic victory against
Burma. The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and a tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols. The
Trần dynasty which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the
Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288). Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty.
Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and the northeast. His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.
Successors after Kublai
Temür Khan
Following the conquest of
Dali in 1253, the former ruling Duan dynasty were appointed as
Maharajah. Local chieftains were appointed as
Tusi, recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan,
Ming, and
Qing-era governments, principally in the province of
Yunnan. Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son,
Zhenjin
Zhenjin ( , ; 1240 – 1285 or January 5, 1286), also rendered as Jingim, Chinkim, or Chingkim, was a crown prince of the Yuan dynasty of China. He was the son of Kublai Khan and grandson of Tolui.
Life
He was born as second son to Kublai Khan ...
, as the
Crown Prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister
Bayan, succeeded the throne and ruled as
Temür Khan, or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan.
Külüg Khan
Külüg Khan
Külüg Khan ( Mongolian: Хүлэг; Mongolian script: ; ), born Khayishan (Mongolian: Хайсан ; , mn, Хайсан, meaning "wall"), also known by the temple name Wuzong (Emperor Wuzong of Yuan; ) (August 4, 1281 – January 27, 1311), P ...
(Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent.
Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan
The fourth Yuan emperor,
Buyantu Khan (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream
Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite.
He had been mentored by
Li Meng, a
Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the
Department of State Affairs (), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials.
Starting in 1313 the traditional
imperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.
Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür
Emperor
Gegeen Khan
Gegeen Khan ( Mongolian: Гэгээн хаан; Mongol script: ; ''Shidebal Gegegen qaγan''; ; born Shidibala (; 碩德八剌), also known by the temple name Yingzong (Emperor Yingzong of Yuan, Chinese: 元英宗, February 22, 1302 – Septembe ...
, Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand
chancellor Baiju. During his reign, the ''Da Yuan Tong Zhi'' (), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a
coup involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed
Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to
regicide
Regicide is the purposeful killing of a monarch or sovereign of a polity and is often associated with the usurpation of power. A regicide can also be the person responsible for the killing. The word comes from the Latin roots of ''regis'' ...
.
Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.
Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür
When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328,
Tugh Temür was recalled to
Khanbaliq by the
Qipchaq
The Kipchaks or Qipchaks, also known as Kipchak Turks or Polovtsians, were a Turkic nomadic people and confederation that existed in the Middle Ages, inhabiting parts of the Eurasian Steppe. First mentioned in the 8th century as part of the Sec ...
commander
El Temür
El Temür (; Mongolian:; died 1333) was an ethnic Kipchak official of the Yuan dynasty. He was behind the coup d'état that installed Tugh Temür (Emperor Wenzong) as Yuan emperor in the capital Khanbaliq in 1328. The restorationists at Khanbaliq ...
. He was installed as the emperor (Emperor Wenzong) in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son
Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the
War of the Two Capitals. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother
Kusala, who was backed by Chagatai Khan
Eljigidey
Eljigidey was khan of the Chagatai Khanate, a division of the Mongol Empire in 1326–1329. He was the son of Duwa. After the death of his brother Kebek, Eljigidey took control of the Chagatai Khanate. He was involved in the succession strug ...
, and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as
Golden Horde and
Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.
Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring
Confucianism and promoting
Chinese cultural values. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature (), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment". The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional
compendium named ''Jingshi Dadian'' (). Tugh Temür supported
Zhu Xi's
Neo-Confucianism and also devoted himself in
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
.
Toghon Temür
After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of
Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong) the same year, the 13-year-old
Toghon Temür
Toghon Temür ( mn, Тогоонтөмөр; Mongolian script: ; ; 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Huizong of Yuan () bestowed by the Northern Yuan dynasty and by his posthumous ...
(Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from
Guangxi and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür's death,
Bayan became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghon Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew
Toqto'a, who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled
official histories of the
Liao,
Jin, and
Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349.
Decline of the empire
The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest.
Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.
From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the
Red Turban Rebellion led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to
Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the
Míng dynasty (1368–1644), founded by
Zhu Yuanzhang
The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1368 to 1398.
As famine, plagues and peasant revolts i ...
in the south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er, who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died in
Yingchang
Yingchang () was one of the important cities in the Yuan dynasty. It was situated on Lake Taal Nor in modern Heshigten Banner, Inner Mongolia, China.
The city of Yingchang was built by the Khongirad Mongols in 1271, the same year that Kublai (Em ...
(located in present-day
Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still live in
Henan today.
The
Prince of Liang,
Basalawarmi
Basalawarmi ( xng, ᠪᠠᠵᠠᠯᠠᠸᠠᠷᠮᠠᠢ, , died January 6, 1382), commonly known by his hereditary noble title, the Prince of Liang, was a Yuan dynasty prince and loyalist who fought against the ascendant Ming dynasty in China p ...
established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in
Yunnan and
Guizhou, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in
Manchuria under
Naghachu had also
surrendered to the Ming dynasty. The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan (大元) was formally carried on, and is known as the
Northern Yuan dynasty.
Impact
A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of
drama and the
novel and the increased use of the
written vernacular. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the
Mongol Empire also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across
Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in
Persia, the
Ilkhanate, encouraged this development. Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite
Tantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan dynasty introduced
Middle Eastern cartography,
astronomy, medicine, clothing, and diet in East Asia. Eastern crops such as
carrots,
turnip
The turnip or white turnip ('' Brassica rapa'' subsp. ''rapa'') is a root vegetable commonly grown in temperate climates worldwide for its white, fleshy taproot. The word ''turnip'' is a compound of ''turn'' as in turned/rounded on a lathe and ...
s, new varieties of
lemon
The lemon (''Citrus limon'') is a species of small evergreen trees in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia, primarily Northeast India (Assam), Northern Myanmar or China.
The tree's ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culin ...
s,
eggplants, and
melons, high-quality granulated
sugar, and
cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus '' Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, and can contain minor pe ...
were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty.
[C.P. Atwood – Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.611]
Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to
Islam, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest.
Nestorianism and
Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration.
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
(especially
Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
) flourished, although
Taoism endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government.
Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on the
Classics, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature,
cartography,
geography, and scientific education.
Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified
saltpetre, printing techniques,
porcelain,
playing cards
A playing card is a piece of specially prepared card stock, heavy paper, thin cardboard, plastic-coated paper, cotton-paper blend, or thin plastic that is marked with distinguishing motifs. Often the front (face) and back of each card has a f ...
, and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin
glass
Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent, amorphous solid that has widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optics. Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling ( quenching ...
and
cloisonné
Cloisonné () is an ancient technique for decorating metalwork objects with colored material held in place or separated by metal strips or wire, normally of gold. In recent centuries, vitreous enamel has been used, but inlays of cut gemstones, ...
became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system.
Aside from the
ancient Roman embassies, the
first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the
Venetian Marco Polo, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, ''Il milione'' (or, ''The Million'', known in English as the ''Travels of Marco Polo''), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, tea houses, which would have been a prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture, as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account is largely accurate and unique.
The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer
Guo Shoujing, who was tasked with many public works projects and helped the Yuan reform the
lunisolar calendar to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year, which was only 26 seconds off the modern
Gregorian calendar
The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world. It was introduced in October 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years dif ...
's measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines,
granaries
A granary is a storehouse or room in a barn for threshed grain or animal feed. Ancient or primitive granaries are most often made of pottery. Granaries are often built above the ground to keep the stored food away from mice and other animals ...
were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the
Grand Canal of China
The Grand Canal, known to the Chinese as the Jing–Hang Grand Canal (, or more commonly, as the「大运河」("Grand Canal")), a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the longest canal or artificial river in the world. Starting in Beijing, it passes ...
, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout
Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop,
sorghum, along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.
The Yuan dynasty was the first dynasty founded by non-
Han ethnicity that ruled all of
China proper
China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the "core" regions of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. This term is used to express a distinction between the "core" regions pop ...
. In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious." In traditional
historiography of China
Chinese historiography is the study of the techniques and sources used by historians to develop the recorded history of China.
Overview of Chinese history
The recording of events in Chinese history dates back to the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 ...
, on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the
Song dynasty and the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
. Note, however, Yuan dynasty is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before
Kublai Khan's formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai officially honored prior rulers of the Mongol Empire as Yuan emperors by conferring them
posthumous names and
temple name
Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dyna ...
s. Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew the Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Hans were treated as
second-class citizen
A second-class citizen is a person who is systematically and actively discriminated against within a state or other political jurisdiction, despite their nominal status as a citizen or a legal resident there. While not necessarily slaves, o ...
s, and that China stagnated economically and scientifically.
The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to the theory of the
Five Elements (wuxing). Note that the Metal element does not follow from the Song's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from the Jin Dynast's dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han-Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor.
The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the
Ilkhanid
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm, ...
s, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.
Government
The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign of
Kublai Khan (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368.
The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the
Hans,
Khitans
The Khitan people (Khitan small script: ; ) were a historical nomadic people from Northeast Asia who, from the 4th century, inhabited an area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia, Northeast China and the Russian Far East.
As a people desce ...
,
Jurchens
Jurchen (Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They lived in the northeast of China, later known as Manch ...
,
Mongols, and
Tibetan Buddhist
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
s. While the official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native
Tang,
Song, as well as Khitan
Liao and Jurchen
Jin dynasties. Chinese advisers such as
Liu Bingzhong and
Yao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and the central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite
division of authority among
civil
Civil may refer to:
*Civic virtue, or civility
*Civil action, or lawsuit
* Civil affairs
*Civil and political rights
*Civil disobedience
*Civil engineering
*Civil (journalism), a platform for independent journalism
*Civilian, someone not a membe ...
, military, and
censorial offices, including the
Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the
Privy Council () to manage military affairs, and the
Censorate
The Censorate was a high-level supervisory agency in Imperial China, first established during the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC).
The Censorate was a highly effective agency during the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). During the M ...
to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style
Six Ministries), was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the
Department of State Affairs (Shangshu Sheng) that mainly dealt with
finance was established (such as during the reign of
Külüg Khan
Külüg Khan ( Mongolian: Хүлэг; Mongolian script: ; ), born Khayishan (Mongolian: Хайсан ; , mn, Хайсан, meaning "wall"), also known by the temple name Wuzong (Emperor Wuzong of Yuan; ) (August 4, 1281 – January 27, 1311), P ...
or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards.
While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since the
Sui and
Tang dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the
Ministry of Justice, did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and
Semuren, who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the
Ministry of War Ministry of War may refer to:
* Ministry of War (imperial China) (c.600–1912)
* Chinese Republic Ministry of War (1912–1946)
* Ministry of War (Kingdom of Bavaria) (1808–1919)
* Ministry of War (Brazil) (1815–1999)
* Ministry of War (Estoni ...
compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council.
The
Kingdom of Qocho,
Kingdom of Dali
The Dali Kingdom, also known as the Dali State (; Bai: Dablit Guaif), was a state situated in modern Yunnan province, China from 937 until 1253. In 1253, it was conquered by the Mongols but members of its former ruling dynasty continued to a ...
,
Chiefdom of Bozhou
The Chiefdom of Bozhou (), ruled by the Yang clan, was an autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom established by Yang Duan () during the Tang dynasty. After he conquered the Bozhou Prefecture (centred on modern Zunyi) from the Nanzhao Kingdom, Yang Duan was ...
, other
Tusi kingdoms and
Goryeo were ruled by kings inside the Yuan empire.
Science and technology
Mathematics
Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during the Yuan era. The mathematician
Zhu Shijie
Zhu Shijie (, 1249–1314), courtesy name Hanqing (), pseudonym Songting (), was a Chinese mathematician and writer. He was a Chinese mathematician during the Yuan Dynasty. Zhu was born close to today's Beijing. Two of his mathematical works ha ...
(1249–1314) solved
simultaneous equations
In mathematics, a set of simultaneous equations, also known as a system of equations or an equation system, is a finite set of equations for which common solutions are sought. An equation system is usually classified in the same manner as single e ...
with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern
matrices
Matrix most commonly refers to:
* ''The Matrix'' (franchise), an American media franchise
** ''The Matrix'', a 1999 science-fiction action film
** "The Matrix", a fictional setting, a virtual reality environment, within ''The Matrix'' (franchis ...
. Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown. His method is described in the ''
Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns'', written in 1303. The opening pages contain a diagram of
Pascal's triangle
In mathematics, Pascal's triangle is a triangular array of the binomial coefficients that arises in probability theory, combinatorics, and algebra. In much of the Western world, it is named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal, although o ...
. The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book.
Guo Shoujing applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry. Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations. His calendar, the ''Shoushi Li'' (), was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty. The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of
Song dynasty astronomer
Shen Kuo or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers. There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars. Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought
Arabic numerals to China in the 13th century.
Medicine
The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures. Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called ''otachi'' and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized ''otachi'' doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism. Physicians received official support from the Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors. Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues.
The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that the Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine. Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as
acupuncture
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientif ...
,
moxibustion
Moxibustion () is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy which consists of burning dried mugwort ('' wikt:moxa'') on particular points on the body. It plays an important role in the traditional medical systems of China, Japan, Korea, Vietna ...
,
pulse diagnosis
Pulse diagnosis is a diagnostic technique used in Ayurveda, traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Mongolian medicine, Siddha medicine, traditional Tibetan medicine, and Unani. Although it once showed many positive results, it no longer has ...
, and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to the Middle East and the rest of the empire. Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician
Wei Yilin (1277–1347) invented a suspension method for
reducing dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics. The Mongol physician
Hu Sihui
Hu Sihui (, 和斯輝, 忽斯慧, also Hu Zheng Qi Huei; active nr. 1314–1330) was a Chinese court therapist and dietitian during Yuan dynasty. He is known for his book ''Yinshan Zhengyao'' (''Dietary Principles''), that became a classic in Chi ...
described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.
Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of the Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as ''huihui'' or Muslim medicine. The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai. Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court. Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its
humoral system contradicted the
yin-yang and wuxing philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine. No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access to
Avicenna's ''
The Canon of Medicine
''The Canon of Medicine'' ( ar, القانون في الطب, italic=yes ''al-Qānūn fī al-Ṭibb''; fa, قانون در طب, italic=yes, ''Qanun-e dâr Tâb'') is an encyclopedia of medicine in five books compiled by Persian physician-phi ...
''.
Printing and publishing
The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry. Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols through
Kingdom of Qocho and Tibetan intermediaries. Some Yuan documents such as
Wang Zhen's ''Nong Shu'' were printed with earthenware
movable type, a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditional
block printing
Woodblock printing or block printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later paper. Each page or image is create ...
techniques. The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name of
Töregene Khatun, Ögedei's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government-sponsored printing office. The Yuan government established centers for printing throughout China. Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.
Private printing businesses also flourished under the Yuan. They published a diverse range of works, and printed educational, literary, medical, religious, and historical texts. The volume of printed materials was vast. In 1312, 1,000 copies of a Buddhist text commented by Cosgi Odsir were printed just within Beijing. By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars and almanacs reached over three million in the Yuan dynasty.
One of the more notable applications of printing technology was the ''
Jiaochao'', the paper money of the Yuan. Jiaochao were made from the bark of mulberry trees. The Yuan government used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in 1275. The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese-style paper monetary system in Mongol-controlled territories outside of China. The Yuan minister
Bolad
Bolad ( Mongolian: , , , d.1313), was an ethnic Mongol minister of the Yuan dynasty of China, and later served in the Ilkhanate as the representative of the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and cultural adviser to the Ilkhans. He also provided ...
was sent to Iran, where he explained Yuan paper money to the Il-khanate court of
Gaykhatu
Gaykhatu ( Mongolian script:; ) was the fifth Ilkhanate ruler in Iran. He reigned from 1291 to 1295. His Buddhist baghshi gave him the Tibetan name Rinchindorj () which appeared on his paper money.
Early life
He was born to Abaqa and Nukdan ...
. The Il-khanate government issued paper money in 1294, but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment.
Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology. Marco Polo documented the Yuan printing of paper money and almanac pamphlets called ''tacuini''. The vizier
Rashid-al-Din recognized that printing was a valuable technological breakthrough, and expressed regret that the Mongol experiment with printing paper money had failed in the Muslim world. Rashid-al-Din's view was not shared by other chroniclers in the Middle East, who were critical of the experiment's disruptive impact on the Il-khanate.
Ceramics
In
Chinese ceramics the period was one of expansion, with the great innovation the development in
Jingdezhen ware of
underglaze
Underglaze is a method of decorating pottery in which painted decoration is applied to the surface before it is covered with a transparent ceramic glaze and fired in a kiln. Because the glaze subsequently covers it, such decoration is completely ...
painted
blue and white pottery
"Blue and white pottery" () covers a wide range of white pottery and porcelain decorated under the glaze with a blue pigment, generally cobalt oxide. The decoration is commonly applied by hand, originally by brush painting, but nowadays by s ...
. This seems to have begun in the early decades of the 14th century, and by the end of the dynasty was mature and well-established. Other major types of wares continued without a sharp break in their development, but there was a general trend to some larger size pieces, and more decoration. This is often seen as a decline from Song refinement. Exports expanded considerably, especially to the Islamic world.
Society
Imperial lifestyle
Since its invention in 1269, the
'Phags-pa script, a unified script for spelling
Mongolian,
Tibetan, and
Chinese languages, was preserved in the court until the end of the dynasty. Most of the Emperors could not master
written Chinese, but they could generally converse well in the language. The Mongol custom of long standing quda/marriage alliance with Mongol clans, the
Onggirat, and the Ikeres, kept the imperial blood purely Mongol until the reign of
Tugh Temur (Emperor Wenzong), whose mother was a
Tangut concubine. The Mongol Emperors had built large palaces and pavilions, but some still continued to live as nomads at times. Tugh Temür was an example of a Yuan emperor who actively sponsored cultural activities; including in his imperial capacity and in his personal activities such as writing
poetry,
painting
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the "matrix" or "support"). The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and ai ...
, reading
Chinese classical texts, and ordering the compilation of books.
The average Mongol garrison family of the Yuan dynasty seems to have lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with income from the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of equipping and dispatching men for their tours of duty. The Mongols practiced debt slavery, and by 1290 in all parts of the Mongol Empire commoners were selling their children into slavery. Seeing this as damaging to the Mongol nation, Kublai in 1291 forbade the sale abroad of Mongols. Kublai wished to persuade the Chinese that he was becoming increasingly
sinicized
Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix , 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies come under the influence of Chinese culture, particularly the language, societal norms, cul ...
while maintaining his Mongolian credentials with his own people. He set up a civilian administration to rule, built a capital within China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and devised suitable economic and political institutions for the court. But at the same time he never abandoned his Mongolian heritage.
Culture
During the Yuan dynasty, various important developments in the arts occurred or continued in their development, including the areas of painting, mathematics, calligraphy, poetry, and theater, with many great artists and writers being famous today. Due to the coming together of painting, poetry, and calligraphy at this time many of the artists practicing these different pursuits were the same individuals, though perhaps more famed for one area of their achievements than others. Often in terms of the further development of
landscape painting
Landscape painting, also known as landscape art, is the depiction of natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, especially where the main subject is a wide view—with its elements arranged into a coherent compo ...
as well as the classical joining of the arts of painting, poetry, and calligraphy, the
Song dynasty and the Yuan dynasty are linked together.
In
Chinese painting during the Yuan dynasty there were
many famous painters. In the area of
calligraphy many of the great calligraphers were from the Yuan dynasty era. In
Yuan poetry, the main development was the ''
qu'', which was used among other poetic forms by most of the
famous Yuan poets. Many of the poets were also involved in the major developments in the
theater during this time, and the other way around, with people important in the theater becoming famous through the development of the ''
sanqu
''Sanqu'' () is a fixed-rhythm form of Classical Chinese poetry or "literary song".Crump (1990), 125 Specifically ''sanqu'' is a subtype of the '' qu'' formal type of poetry. ''Sanqu'' was a notable Chinese poetic form, possibly beginning in the ...
'' type of ''qu''. One of the key factors in the mix of the ''
zaju variety show'' was the incorporation of poetry both classical and of the newer ''qu'' form. One of the important cultural developments during the Yuan era was the consolidation of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a unified piece of the type that tends to come to mind when people think of classical Chinese art. Another important aspect of Yuan times is the increasing incorporation of the then current, vernacular Chinese into both the ''qu'' form of poetry and the ''zaju'' variety show. Another important consideration regarding Yuan dynasty arts and culture is that so much of it has survived in China, relatively to works from the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
and Song dynasty, which have often been better preserved in places such as the
Shōsōin, in Japan.
Religion
There were many religions practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such as
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
,
Islam,
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
and
Manichaeism. The establishment of the Yuan dynasty had dramatically increased the number of
Muslims in China. However, unlike the western khanates, the Yuan dynasty never converted to Islam. Instead, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, favored Buddhism, especially the Tibetan variants. As a result,
Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
was established as the ''de facto''
state religion. The top-level department and government agency known as the
Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzheng Yuan) was set up in
Khanbaliq (modern
Beijing) to supervise
Buddhist monks throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed the
Sakya
The ''Sakya'' (, 'pale earth') school is one of four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism, the others being the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Gelug. It is one of the Red Hat Orders along with the Nyingma and Kagyu.
Origins
Virūpa, 16th century. It depic ...
sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. He and his successors kept a Sakya
Imperial Preceptor
The Imperial Preceptor, or Dishi (, lit. "Teacher of the Emperor") was a high title and powerful post created by Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty. It was established as part of Mongol patronage of Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan administra ...
(Dishi) at court. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor, thereby enjoying special power. Furthermore, Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted in a number of monuments of Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan originals, began on a large scale after 1300. Many Mongols of the upper class such as the
Jalayir
Jalair ( mn, Жалайр; ; ), also Djalair, Yyalair, Jalayir, is one of the Darliqin Mongol tribes according to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's ''Jami' al-tawarikh''. They lived along the Shilka River in modern Zabaykalsky Krai of Russia.History of Mo ...
and the Oronar nobles as well as the emperors also patronized
Confucian scholars and institutions. A considerable number of Confucian and Chinese historical works were translated into the
Mongolian language.
At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.
Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves" and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method.
Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected and forbidden by the Mongols to eat
Kosher.
Among all the ubjectalien peoples only the Hui-hui say “we do not eat Mongol food”. inggis Qa’an replied:“By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?” He thereupon made them eat. “If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime.” He issued a regulation to that effect ... n 1279/1280 under Qubilaiall the Muslims say: “if someone else slaughters he animalwe do not eat”. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman uslimHuihui and Zhuhu ewishHuihui, no matter who kills he animalwill eat tand must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.
The Muslims in the semu class revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the
Ispah Rebellion, but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese meaning "barracks" and also meaning "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Hans for assisting them.
During the
Ming conquest of Yunnan
The Ming conquest of Yunnan was the final phase in the Ming dynasty expulsion of Mongol-led Yuan dynasty rule from China proper in the 1380s.
Background
The Hongwu Emperor had sent envoys to Yunnan in 1369, 1370, 1372, 1374, and 1375 to reque ...
, Muslim generals
Mu Ying and
Lan Yu led Muslim troops loyal to the Ming dynasty against Mongol and Muslim troops loyal to the Yuan dynasty.
Hindu statues were found in
Quanzhou dating to the Yuan period.
Social classes
Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonial
feudalism and the traditional Chinese
autocratic
Autocracy is a system of government in which absolute power over a state is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject neither to external legal restraints nor to regularized mechanisms of popular control (except per ...
-
bureaucratic
The term bureaucracy () refers to a body of non-elected governing officials as well as to an administrative policy-making group. Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected offi ...
system. Nevertheless, socially the educated Chinese
elite were in general not given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite were not given their share of power, the Mongols and the
Semu
Semu () is the name of a caste established by the Yuan dynasty. The 31 Semu categories referred to people who came from Central and West Asia. They had come to serve the Yuan dynasty by enfranchising under the dominant Mongol caste. The Semu were ...
people (various allied groups from
Central Asia and the western end of the empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstream
Chinese culture, and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong "
colonial
Colonial or The Colonial may refer to:
* Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology)
Architecture
* American colonial architecture
* French Colonial
* Spanish Colonial architecture
Automobiles
* Colonial (1920 au ...
" coloration. The unequal treatment is possibly due to the fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The Mongols and Semuren were given certain advantages in the dynasty, and this would last even after the restoration of the
imperial examination in the early 14th century. In general there were very few North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest-post in the government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in the
Ilkhanate. Later the
Yongle Emperor of the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
also mentioned the discrimination that existed during the Yuan dynasty. In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians" in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "... Discrimination was used by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars" and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them". However, ordinary Mongol families fell into extreme poverty in both Mongolia and China proper, and elite positions were increasingly penetrated by ethnic Han.
The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. But during Kublai's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the following classes:
#
Mongols. The Mongols were called "Gao-chen" (the citizens of the ruling empire) by the conquered Southern Song population
#
Semu
Semu () is the name of a caste established by the Yuan dynasty. The 31 Semu categories referred to people who came from Central and West Asia. They had come to serve the Yuan dynasty by enfranchising under the dominant Mongol caste. The Semu were ...
, consisting of non-Mongol foreigners from the west and
Central Asia, like
Buddhist Uyghurs from Turfan,
Tanguts,
Tibetans,
Jews, Nestorian Christians, and Muslims from Central Asia
# "
Han", or all subjects of the former Jin dynasty, including
Hans,
Khitans
The Khitan people (Khitan small script: ; ) were a historical nomadic people from Northeast Asia who, from the 4th century, inhabited an area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia, Northeast China and the Russian Far East.
As a people desce ...
,
Jurchens
Jurchen (Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They lived in the northeast of China, later known as Manch ...
in
northern China, and other peoples like
Koreans
# Southerners, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty, including Hans and minority native ethnic groups in
southern China
South China () is a geographical and cultural region that covers the southernmost part of China. Its precise meaning varies with context. A notable feature of South China in comparison to the rest of China is that most of its citizens are not n ...
, sometimes called "Manzi" during the Yuan
Partner merchants and non-Mongol overseers were usually either immigrants or local ethnic groups. Thus, in China they were
Uighur Buddhists,
Turkestani and
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
Muslims, and
Christians. Foreigners from outside the Mongol Empire entirely, such as the
Polo family, were everywhere welcomed.
At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in
Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.
Hans were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq,
Almaliq, and
Samarqand by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers.
Alans
The Alans (Latin: ''Alani'') were an ancient and medieval Iranian nomadic pastoral people of the North Caucasus – generally regarded as part of the Sarmatians, and possibly related to the Massagetae. Modern historians have connected the A ...
were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called
"Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former
Kingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Gongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih).
After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-management with Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) of gardens and fields in Samarqand was put upon the Muslims as a requirement since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them. The Yuan-appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Khitan from the
Qara Khitai
The Qara Khitai, or Kara Khitai (), also known as the Western Liao (), officially the Great Liao (), was a Sinicized dynastic regime based in Central Asia ruled by the Khitan Yelü clan. The Qara Khitai is considered by historians to be an ...
, held the title Taishi, familiar with Chinese culture his name was Ahai.
Han officials and colonists were
sent by the Yuan dynasty to areas of
Lingbei province including .
Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan emperors severely discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well as
Kosher butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way. Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined
Hans in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder
Zhu Yuanzhang
The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1368 to 1398.
As famine, plagues and peasant revolts i ...
had Muslim generals like
Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had a Chinese surname which meant "barracks" and could also mean "thanks". Many Hui Muslims claim this is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was given in thanks by the Hans for assisting them. During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng. The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the
Ispah Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.
The Yuan dynasty started passing anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws and getting rid of Semu Muslim privileges towards the end of the Yuan dynasty, in 1340 forcing them to follow Confucian principles in marriage regulations, in 1329 all foreign holy men including Muslims had tax exemptions revoked, in 1328 the position of Muslim Qadi was abolished after its powers were limited in 1311. In the middle of the 14th century this caused Muslims to start rebelling against Mongol Yuan rule and joining rebel groups. In 1357–1367 the Yisibaxi Muslim Persian garrison started a revolt against the Yuan dynasty in Quanzhou and southern Fujian. Persian merchants Amin ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din Saifuding led the revolt. Persian official Yawuna assassinated both Amin ud-Din and Saif ud-Din in 1362 and took control of the Muslim rebel forces. The Muslim rebels tried to strike north and took over some parts of Xinghua but were defeated at Fuzhou two times and failed to take it. Yuan provincial loyalist forces from Fuzhou defeated the Muslim rebels in 1367 after A Muslim rebel officer named Jin Ji defected from Yawuna.
The Muslim merchants in Quanzhou who engaged in maritime trade enriched their families which encompassed their political and trade activities as families. Historians see the violent Chinese backlash that happened at the end of the Yuan dynasty against the wealth of the Muslim and Semu as something inevitable, however anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws had already been passed by the Yuan dynasty. In 1340 all marriages had to follow Confucian rules, in 1329 all foreign holy men and clerics including Muslims no longer were exempt from tax, in 1328 the Qadi (Muslim headmen) were abolished after being limited in 1311. This resulted in anti-Mongol sentiment among Muslims so some anti-Mongol rebels in the mid 14th century were joined by Muslims. Quanzhou came under control of Amid ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din (Saifuding), two Persian military officials in 1357 as they revolted against the Mongols from 1357 to 1367 in southern Fujian and Quanzhou, leading the Persian garrison (Ispah) They fought for Fuzhou and Xinghua for 5 years. Both Saifuding and Amiliding were murdered by another Muslim called Nawuna in 1362 so he then took control of Quanzhou and the Ispah garrison for 5 more years until his defeat by the Yuan.
The historian
Frederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally, so a person's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol and Semu than there were Mongol and Semu who lived in poverty and were ill-treated.
The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more they held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in. Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants.
When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the
Kingdom of Qocho over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the Uighur King of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.
Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four-class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.
Nobility
Many
Tusi chiefdoms and kingdoms in southwestern China which existed before the Mongol invasions were allowed to retain their integrity as vassals of the Yuan dynasty after surrendering, including the
Kingdom of Dali
The Dali Kingdom, also known as the Dali State (; Bai: Dablit Guaif), was a state situated in modern Yunnan province, China from 937 until 1253. In 1253, it was conquered by the Mongols but members of its former ruling dynasty continued to a ...
, the Han Chinese Yang family ruling the
Chiefdom of Bozhou
The Chiefdom of Bozhou (), ruled by the Yang clan, was an autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom established by Yang Duan () during the Tang dynasty. After he conquered the Bozhou Prefecture (centred on modern Zunyi) from the Nanzhao Kingdom, Yang Duan was ...
with its seat at the castle
Hailongtun
Hailongtun () is a ruined fortress on the Longyan Mountain, in Hailongtun Village, Gaoping Town, Zunyi City, Guizhou Province, China. It was the stronghold of the Chiefdom of Bozhou until its destruction by the Ming dynasty after the Bozhou reb ...
,
Chiefdom of Lijiang
The Chiefdom of Lijiang (; Naxi: ) was a Nakhi autonomous Tusi chiefdom that ruled Lijiang during Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasty.
History
At first, Lijiang was ruled by Yuexi Zhao (越巂詔). Later, it was annexed by Nanzhao. According to leg ...
,
Chiefdom of Shuidong
Chiefdom of Shuidong (), ruled by the Song clan, was an autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom established by Song Jingyang () during the Song dynasty. After he conquered the Manzhou Prefecture (蠻州, centred on modern Kaiyang County) from the Yi people, ...
,
Chiefdom of Sizhou,
Chiefdom of Yao'an,
Chiefdom of Yongning and
Mu'ege
Mu'ege ( Nasu: ; ) was a Nasu Yi chiefdom in modern Guizhou that existed from 300 to 1698. Since 1279, Mu'ege was conquered by the Yuan dynasty and became Chiefdom of Shuixi () under the Chinese ''tusi'' system.
Shuixi was one of the most po ...
. As were
Korea under Mongol rule and the
Kingdom of Qocho.
The Han Chinese nobles
Duke Yansheng
The Duke Yansheng, literally "Honorable Overflowing with Wisdom", sometimes translated as Holy Duke of Yen, was a Chinese title of nobility. It was originally created as a marquis title in the Western Han dynasty for a direct descendant o ...
and
Celestial Masters
The Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 AD. Its followers rebelled against the Han Dynasty, and won their independence in 194. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic stat ...
continued possessing their titles in the Yuan dynasty since the previous dynasties.
Administrative divisions
The territory of the Yuan dynasty was divided into the Central Region () governed by the
Central Secretariat and places under control of various provinces () or Branch Secretariats (), as well as the region under the
Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.
The Central Region, consisting of present-day
Hebei
Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and 0 ...
,
Shandong,
Shanxi, the south-eastern part of present-day
Inner Mongolia and the
Henan areas to the north of the
Yellow River, was considered the most important region of the dynasty and directly governed by the Central Secretariat (or Zhongshu Sheng) at
Khanbaliq (modern
Beijing); similarly, another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (or Xuanzheng Yuan)
held administrative rule over the whole of modern-day
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Taman ...
and a part of
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of the ...
,
Qinghai and
Kashmir.
Branch Secretariats or simply
province
A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman '' provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions ou ...
s, were provincial-level administrative organizations or institutions, though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were 11 "regular" provinces in Yuan dynasty,
[Duosang Mongol History, Vol. 1; Zhong-gou Tong-shi; History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities; The New Yuan-shih] and their administrations were subordinated to the Central Secretariat.
Below the level of provinces, the largest political division was the
circuit (), followed by
lù (),
fǔ () and
zhōu (). These are three kinds of prefecture-like divisions. The lowest political division was the
county ().
Basically, lù is higher than fǔ, and fǔ is higher than zhōu. However, the actual relationship between them could be very complicated. Both lù, fǔ and zhōu could administer counties. Some fǔ and zhōu are directly administered by the province, while some exist inside a lù. A lù usually administers several counties, along with several fǔ and zhōu, and the fǔ or zhōu themselves could also administer their own counties. As a result, it is impossible to exactly define how many tiers of divisions there are under a province.
This government structure at the provincial level was later inherited and modified by the
Ming and
Qing dynasties.
Gallery
File:Yuan dynasty iron magic square.jpg, Magic square in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)
File:Yuan Dynasty - waterwheels and smelting.png, smelting machines (Yuan dynasty)
File:水轮.jpg, Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)
File:水锤.jpg, Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)
File:纺织机.jpg, Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)
File:水磨齿轮.jpg, water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)
File:农书织布机.jpg, loom (Yuan dynasty)
File:Zhao Mengfu1.jpg, Yuan painting ( Zhao Mengfu)
File:Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg, Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)
File:Skanda detail heart sutra zhao mengfu.jpeg, Military costume.
File:Immortal Riding a Dragon.jpg, Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a dragon.
File:Horse and Groom, after Li Gonglin by Zhao Yong.jpg, Yuan cavalry
File:Jiang Ge.JPG, Yuan Mongol soldier
File:Qubilai Setsen Khaan.JPG, Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan during his youth
File:元负囊骑马俑.jpg, Mongol rider (Yuan dynasty)
File:Yuan stone Nestorian inscription (rep).JPG, Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian
Nestorianism is a term used in Christian theology and Church history to refer to several mutually related but doctrinarily distinct sets of teachings. The first meaning of the term is related to the original teachings of Christian theologian ...
Christian Cross from a monastery of Fangshan District
Fangshan District () is situated in the southwest of Beijing, away from downtown Beijing. It has an area of and a population of 814,367 (2000 Census). The district is divided into 8 subdistricts, 14 towns, and 6 townships.
The district administ ...
in Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), dated to the Yuan Dynasty
See also
*
List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty
The following is a list of emperors of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). It also contains early rulers ( khagans-emperors and regents) of the Mongol Empire posthumously honored by Kublai Khan as Yuan emperors.
List of emperors
Timeline ...
**
Emperor's family tree
*
Mongol Empire
**
List of Mongol rulers
The following is a list of Mongol rulers.
The list of states is chronological but follows the development of different dynasties.
Khamag Mongol (1120s–1206)
* Kaidu – the first Khan to unite the Mongol clans
* Khabul Khan – the firs ...
**
Mongol invasions and conquests
*
Mughal Empire
*
History of Mongolia
*
History of China
**
Dynasties in Chinese history
***
Jurchen Jin dynasty
***
Song dynasty
***
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
***
Western Xia
***
Dali Kingdom
The Dali Kingdom, also known as the Dali State (; Bai: Dablit Guaif), was a state situated in modern Yunnan province, China from 937 until 1253. In 1253, it was conquered by the Mongols but members of its former ruling dynasty continued to a ...
*
Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty
The Yuan dynasty was a Mongol-led imperial Chinese dynasty. During its existence, its territory was divided into the Central Region (腹裏) governed by the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) and places under control of various provinces (� ...
**
Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia
**
Tibet under Yuan rule
Tibet under Mongol rule refers to the Mongol Empire and Yuan dynasty's rule over Tibet from 1244 to 1354. During the Yuan dynasty rule of Tibet, the region was structurally, militarily and administratively controlled by the Mongol-led Yuan dynas ...
**
Mongolia under Yuan rule
**
Manchuria under Yuan rule
**
Korea under Yuan rule
Goryeo under Mongol rule refers to the rule of the Mongol Empire and the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty over the Korean Peninsula from about 1270 to 1356. After the Mongol invasions of Korea and the capitulation of the Korean Goryeo dynasty in the 13th ce ...
*
Yuan dynasty coinage
*
Islam during the Yuan dynasty
*
Europeans in Medieval China
*
Hua-Yi distinction
*
Jun ware
Jun ware () is a type of Chinese pottery, one of the Five Great Kilns of Song dynasty ceramics. Despite its fame, much about Jun ware remains unclear, and the subject of arguments among experts. Several different types of pottery are covered by ...
*
List of largest empires
Several empires in human history have been contenders for the largest of all time, depending on definition and mode of measurement. Possible ways of measuring size include area, population, economy, and power. Of these, area is the most commonly ...
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
*Brook, Timothy. ''The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties'' (History of Imperial China) (Harvard UP, 2010)
excerpt*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*Owen, Stephen, "The Yuan and Ming Dynasties," in Stephen Owen, ed. ''An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911''. New York:
W. W. Norton, 1997
pp. 723 743Archive.
*“Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan”. 1987. “Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan”. Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies, no. 19. Society for Song, Yuan, and Conquest Dynasty Studies: 224–54. .
External links
*
{{coord, 39.915, N, 116.390, E, type:country, display=title
1271 establishments in Asia
1271 establishments in the Mongol Empire
1368 disestablishments in Asia
1368 disestablishments in the Mongol Empire
13th-century establishments in China
*02
14th-century disestablishments in China
*01
Borjigin
Dynasties in Chinese history
Former countries in Chinese history
Former countries in East Asia
Former monarchies of East Asia
History of China
History of Mongolia
Khanates
Kublai Khan
Medieval Asia
Mongol states
States and territories established in 1271
States and territories disestablished in 1368