linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Ling ...

, a yes–no question, also known as a binary question, a polar question, or a general question is a

question A question is an utterance which serves as a request for information. Questions are sometimes distinguished from interrogatives, which are the grammatical forms typically used to express them. Rhetorical questions, for instance, are interroga ...

whose expected answer is one of two choices, one that provides an affirmative answer to the question versus one that provides a negative answer to the question. Typically, in English, the choices are either "yes" or "no". Yes–no questions present an

exclusive disjunction Exclusive or or exclusive disjunction is a logical operation that is true if and only if its arguments differ (one is true, the other is false). It is symbolized by the prefix operator J and by the infix operators XOR ( or ), EOR, EXOR, , ...

, namely a pair of alternatives of which only one is a felicitous answer. In English, such questions can be formed in both positive and negative forms * positive yes/no question: "Will you be here tomorrow?" * negative yes/not question: "Won't you be here tomorrow?" Yes–no questions are in contrast with non-polar

wh-question A question is an utterance which serves as a request for information. Questions are sometimes distinguished from interrogatives, which are the grammatical forms typically used to express them. Rhetorical questions, for instance, are interrogati ...

s. The latter are also called content questions, and are formed with the

five Ws The Five Ws (sometimes referred to as Five Ws and How, 5W1H, or Six Ws) are questions whose answers are considered basic in information gathering or problem solving. They are often mentioned in journalism (''cf.'' news style), research, and poli ...

plus an H ( "who", "what", "where", "when", "why", "how"). Rather than restricting the range of possible answers to two alternatives, content questions are compatible with a broad range of alternative answers. For example, questions beginning with "who", involve a set of several alternatives, from which one is to be drawn; in this respect, they are open-ended questions. In contrast, yes–no questions are

closed-ended question A closed-ended question refers to any question for which a researcher provides research participants with options from which to choose a response. Closed-ended questions are sometimes phrased as a statement which requires a response. A closed-en ...

s, as they only permit one of two answers, namely "yes" or "no".

Grammatical form

Yes–no questions take many forms cross-linguistically. Many languages mark them with

word order In linguistics, word order (also known as linear order) is the order of the syntactic constituents of a language. Word order typology studies it from a cross-linguistic perspective, and examines how different languages employ different orders. C ...

or verb morphology. Others use question particles or

question intonation In linguistics, intonation is variation in pitch used to indicate the speaker's attitudes and emotions, to highlight or focus an expression, to signal the illocutionary act performed by a sentence, or to regulate the flow of discourse. For exam ...

. These strategies are often mixed and matched from language to language.

Esperanto

Esperanto Esperanto ( or ) is the world's most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language. Created by the Warsaw-based ophthalmologist L. L. Zamenhof in 1887, it was intended to be a universal second language for international communic ...

, the word "ĉu" added to the beginning of a statement makes it a polar question.

Germanic languages

In Germanic languages, yes–no questions are marked by word order. The following Dutch example shows how questions can be formed using subject inversion. Dutch Subject Verb Inversion

Hindi-Urdu

Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...

Urdu Urdu (;"Urdu"
'' Hindustani), Yes–no questions have rising intonation on the verbal complex, whereas declaratives generally have falling intonation. Unlike

English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ...

, they do not involve inversion of the finite verb. Yes–no questions optionally co-occur with the

wh-word An interrogative word or question word is a function word used to ask a question, such as ''what, which'', ''when'', ''where'', '' who, whom, whose'', ''why'', ''whether'' and ''how''. They are sometimes called wh-words, because in English mos ...

क्या (''kyā'') QP - polar question particle The presence of the polar particle क्या (''kyā'') does not make the characteristic prosody optional. In the sentences (A) and (B) above, क्या (''kyā'') is not the argument of any predicate and hence acts as a yes–no question particle. But क्या (''kyā'') can also function as an argument of a predicate with the meaning ‘''what''’ as shown in (C) The question particle क्या (''kyā'') has a flat intonation while the thematic क्या (''kyā'') has a pitch accent, which also appears more generally on ''wh-phrases'' in Hindi. The most unmarked location for polar-question particle क्या (''kyā'') is the clause-initial position. But it can appear in almost any other position. It can be clause-medial or clause-final. In an almost mirror image pattern, thematic क्या (''kyā'') "what", is natural in the immediately preverbal position but odd/marked elsewhere. In casual use, the "yes or no" question marker (in the sense of "is it that") is usually dropped as intonation is usually sufficient. Some example sentences with varied positions of the yes–no particle are shown in the table below: Note: ''क्या (kyā) can only be interpreted as "what" in the second last sentence in the table above.''

Japanese

In Japanese, the response to a negative yes/not question is opposite to that of English. For example, asking "Won't you be here tomorrow?" (''ashita koko ni inai desu ka?'') the response would be “Yes” (''hai'') if the respondent wished to agree that they will not be there tomorrow, and “No” (''iie'') if the respondent wished to disagree and say that they ''will'' be there tomorrow. A question is formed by appending the particle ''ka'' to a statement, as shown in the table below.

Latin

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...

, the enclitic particle '' -ne'' (sometimes just "-n" in

Old Latin Old Latin, also known as Early Latin or Archaic Latin (Classical la, prīsca Latīnitās, lit=ancient Latinity), was the Latin language in the period before 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin. It descends from a common Proto-Italic ...

) can be added to the emphatic word to turn a declarative statement into a yes–no question. It usually forms a neutral yes–no question, implying neither answer (except where the context makes it clear what the answer must be). For example: * Yes–no questions are also formed in Latin using the word "nonne" to imply that the interrogator thinks the answer to be the affirmative and with "num" to imply that the interrogator thinks the answer to be the negative. For example:

Mandarin

In Chinese, yes–no questions typically take an A-not-A form. The resulting response is usually an echo response.

Russian

In Russian, the word “li” acts as an unambiguous signal to a yes–no question interrogative. (1) ''Kupila li Maša knigu?'' bought li M._NOM book _ACC “Did Maša buy a book?” Intonation is also another way that makes a declarative sentence into an interrogative sentence. (2a) ''Maša KUPILA knigu?'' M._NOM bought book _ACC (2b) ''Maša kupila KNIGU?'' M._NOM bought book _ACC In (2a) there are no particular context requirement, but the finite verb is the position of the pitch accent. For (2b), there is no particular context as well, but the sentence-final internal argument is where the focus is.

Ambiguities

There is an ambiguity in English as to whether certain questions actually ''are'' yes–no questions in the first place. Syntactically identical questions can be semantically different. It can be seen by considering the following ambiguous example: * Did John play chess or checkers? The question could be a yes–no question or could be an alternative question. Possible ways to reply to this question: * “Yes, John did” or “No, John did not”— The respondent assumed a straightforward yes–no question, ''whether'' John played ''either of the games'' * “Chess” or “Checkers”— The respondent assumed it is asking the alternative question (which does not have a yes–no response) of ''which'' of the two game John played (with the presumption that he played one or the other), to which the answer is the name of the game. Another such ambiguous question is "Would you like an apple or an orange?" to which the responses can be "An apple", "An orange", "Yes", and "No", depending from whether the question is seen as an alternative question or a yes–no question. (The "yes." answer involves a further ambiguity, discussed below.) A related ambiguity is questions with the form of yes–no questions but intended not to be. They are a class of questions that encompass ''indirect speech acts''. The question "Can you reach the mustard?" is an example. In form and semantics, it is a straightforward yes–no question, which can be answered either "Yes, I can" or "No, I cannot". There is, however, an indirect speech act (which Clark calls an ''elective construal'') that can optionally be inferred from the question, namely "please pass the mustard". Such indirect speech acts flout Grice's maxim of manner. The inference on the part of the listener is optional, one that can legitimately remain untaken. Clark describes one study where a researcher telephoned fifty restaurants around

Palo Alto, California Palo Alto (; Spanish for "tall stick") is a charter city in the northwestern corner of Santa Clara County, California, United States, in the San Francisco Bay Area, named after a coastal redwood tree known as El Palo Alto. The city was es ...

, asking without embellishment the question "Do you accept credit cards?" The three forms of reply given were: * "Yes, we do." – The respondent assumed a straightforward yes–no question, taking the form of the question at face value. * "Yes, we accept Mastercard and Visa." – The respondent assumed a straightforward yes–no question but provided additional information, either as explanation ("The answer is 'yes' because we accept these two.") or as anticipation or inference of a further request as to what credit cards are accepted. * "We accept Mastercard and Visa." – The respondent not only took the question to be the indirect speech act but also assumed that the question was ''not'' a yes–no question, despite its form and so did not provide a yes–no answer at all. Another part of the same study was the question "Do you have a price on a fifth of Jim Beam?" Out of 100 merchants, 40 answered "Yes". A non-response bias forced researchers to disregard the survey question asking tobacconists "Do you have Prince Albert?" as although the researchers' intent was to observe whether the merchants specified that they offered the tobacco brand as packaged in a can and/or a pouch, the merchants frequently hung up the phone, presumably because they believed themselves to be the victims of a popular prank call.

Answers

According to Grimes, the answer "yes" asserts a positive answer and the answer "no" asserts a negative answer, irrespective of the form of the question. However, simple "yes" or "no" word sentence answers to yes–no questions can be ambiguous in English. For example, a "yes" response to the question "You didn't commit the crime?" could mean either "yes, I didn't commit the crime" or "yes, I did commit the crime" depending from whether the respondent is replying with the

truth-value In logic and mathematics, a truth value, sometimes called a logical value, is a value indicating the relation of a proposition to truth, which in classical logic has only two possible values (''true'' or '' false''). Computing In some progra ...

of the situation or to the polarity used in the question. The ambiguity does not exist in languages that employ

echo answer In linguistics, an echo answer or echo response is a way of answering a polar question without using words for yes and no. The verb used in the question is simply echoed in the answer, negated if the answer has a negative truth-value. For example ...

s. In the

Welsh language Welsh ( or ) is a Celtic language of the Brittonic subgroup that is native to the Welsh people. Welsh is spoken natively in Wales, by some in England, and in Y Wladfa (the Welsh colony in Chubut Province, Argentina). Historically, it h ...

, for example, the response "ydw" ("I am") has no such ambiguity when it is used to reply to a question. Other languages also do not follow the custom, given by Grimes, with respect to the answers "yes" and "no". In New Guinea Pidgin, Polish and

Huichol The Huichol or Wixárika are an indigenous people of Mexico and the United States living in the Sierra Madre Occidental range in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Durango, as well as in the United States in the states of Californi ...

, the answer given has the logical polarity implied by the form of the question. • Positive form: "''Bai Renjinal i ranewe, o nogat?''"; English translation: “Will Reginald escape?” • Possible Answers: “Yes” (agreement, he will escape) or "

nogat The Nogat is a 62 km long delta branch of the Vistula River in northern Poland. Unlike the main river, it does not empty into Gdańsk Bay but rather into the Vistula Lagoon. The Nogat has its origin near the village of Biała Góra as a ...

" (disagreement, he will not escape). However in the negative form, the senses of the answers take the opposite polarity to English, following instead of the polarity of the question. • Negative form: "''Bai Rejinal i no ranewe, o nogat''?" ; English translation: ("Won't Reginald escape?") • Possible Answers: “Yes” (agreement, he ''will not'' escape) or “nogayt” (disagreement, he ''will'' escape) A further ambiguity with yes–no questions, in addition to that of polarity, is the ambiguity of whether an ''exclusive'' or ''inclusive'' disjunction is meant by the word " or", as it can represent either. Conventionally, in English yes–no questions the "or" represents an exclusive disjunction. However, as with the "Would you like an apple or an orange?" question mentioned earlier, to which one possible answer, as a yes–no question, is "yes.", yes–no questions can also be taken to be ''inclusive'' disjunctions. The informativeness of the "or" in the question is low, especially if the second alternative in the question is "something" or "things". The "exclusive" and "inclusive" can be determined often in spoken language (the speaker will often lower their pitch at the end of an "exclusive" question, as opposed to raising it at the end of an "inclusive" question), but it is a frequent source of humour for

computer scientist A computer scientist is a person who is trained in the academic study of computer science. Computer scientists typically work on the theoretical side of computation, as opposed to the hardware side on which computer engineers mainly focus (a ...

s and others familiar with

Boolean logic In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra. It differs from elementary algebra in two ways. First, the values of the variables are the truth values ''true'' and ''false'', usually denoted 1 and 0, whereas ...

, who will give responses such as "yes" to questions such as "Would you like chicken or roast beef for dinner?". However, the ambiguity is not confined to humour. The apple-or-orange question may be legitimately asking whether either is wanted, for example, and "Would you like an apple or something?" is indeed ''expecting'' either "yes" or "no" as a proper answer rather than the answer "Something" that an exclusive disjunction would be requesting. This ambiguity does not exist only in English. It exists in West Greenlandic

Kalaallisut Kalaallisut may refer to: * Greenlandic language * West Greenlandic West Greenlandic ( da, vestgrønlandsk), also known as Kalaallisut, is the primary language of Greenland and constitutes the Greenlandic language, spoken by the vast majority of ...

, for example. The question "Maniitsu-mi Nuum-mi=luunniit najugaqar-pa" ("Does he live in Maniitsoq or Nuuk?") is ambiguous as to whether exclusive or inclusive disjunction is meant. Commonly, this is clarified either by intonation (if the question is spoken) or the inclusion of an explicit question-word such as "sumi" ("where").

Suggestibility

Yes–no questions are believed to carry some suggestibility load. For instance, in response to yes–no questions, children tend to display a compliance tendency: they comply with the structure of the question, negative or positive, by responding in the same way. For example, if preschoolers are asked, "Is this book big?", they will tend to respond "Yes, it is". But if they are asked, "Is this book not big?" they are more likely to say, "No, it is not".