Yaghnobi is an

Eastern Iranian language The Eastern Iranian languages are a subgroup of the Iranian languages emerging in Middle Iranian times (from c. the 4th century BC). The Avestan language is often classified as early Eastern Iranian. As opposed to the Middle Western Iranian dial ...

spoken in the upper valley of the

Yaghnob River The Yaghnob ( tg, Яғноб) is a river in Ayni District of Sughd Region, Tajikistan. Together with the Iskander Darya, it forms the Fan Darya, a major left tributary of the Zeravshan. The source of the Yaghnob is in the Matcha Mountains, whe ...

in the Zarafshan area of

Tajikistan Tajikistan (, ; tg, Тоҷикистон, Tojikiston; russian: Таджикистан, Tadzhikistan), officially the Republic of Tajikistan ( tg, Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон, Jumhurii Tojikiston), is a landlocked country in Centr ...

by the Yaghnobi people. It is considered to be a direct descendant of Sogdian and has sometimes been called Neo-Sogdian in academic literature. There are some 12,500 Yaghnobi speakers, divided into several communities. The principal group lives in the Zafarobod area. There are also resettlers in the

Yaghnob Valley The Yaghnob Valley is a valley in north-west Tajikistan, between the southern slope of the Zarafshan Range and the northern slope of the Gissar Range. The valley is formed by the Yaghnob River and belongs to the Zarafshan basin. It lies betwee ...

. Some communities live in the villages of Zumand and Kůkteppa and in

Dushanbe Dushanbe ( tg, Душанбе, ; ; russian: Душанбе) is the capital and largest city of Tajikistan. , Dushanbe had a population of 863,400 and that population was largely Tajik. Until 1929, the city was known in Russian as Dyushambe (r ...

or its vicinity. Most Yaghnobi speakers are bilingual in

Tajik Tajik, Tadjik, Tadzhik or Tajikistani may refer to: * Someone or something related to Tajikistan * Tajiks, an ethnic group in Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Uzbekistan * Tajik language, the official language of Tajikistan * Tajik (surname) * Tajik c ...

. Yaghnobi is mostly used for daily family communication, and Tajik is used by Yaghnobi-speakers for business and formal transactions. A Russian ethnographer was told by nearby Tajiks, long hostile to the Yaghnobis, who were late to adopt Islam, that the Yaghnobis used their language as a "secret" mode of communication to confuse the Tajiks. The account led to the belief by some that Yaghnobi or some derivative of it was used as a secret code. There are two main dialects: a western and an eastern one. They differ primarily in phonetics. For example, historical ''*θ'' corresponds to ''t'' in the western dialects and ''s'' in the eastern: ''met'' – ''mes'' 'day' from Sogdian ''mēθ'' . Western ''ay'' corresponds to Eastern ''e'': ''wayš'' – ''weš'' 'grass' from Sogdian ''wayš'' or ''wēš'' . The early Sogdian group ''θr'' (later ''ṣ̌'') is reflected as ''sar'' in the east but ''tir'' in the west: ''saráy'' – ''tiráy'' 'three' from Sogdian ''θrē''/''θray'' or ''ṣ̌ē''/''ṣ̌ay'' . There are also some differences in verbal endings and the

lexicon A lexicon is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge (such as nautical or medical). In linguistics, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes. The word ''lexicon'' derives from Greek word (), neuter of () meaning 'of or for w ...

. In between the two main dialects is a transitional dialect that shares some features of both other dialects.

Writing

Yaghnobi was unwritten until the 1990s, but according to Andreyev, some of the Yaghnobi mullahs used the

Arabic script The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and th ...

for writing the language before 1928, mainly when they needed to hide some information from the Tajiks.М. С. Андреев, Материалы по этнографии Ягноба, Душанбе (Дониш) 1970, pp. 38–39 Nowadays, the language is transcribed by scholars using a modified

Latin alphabet The Latin alphabet or Roman alphabet is the collection of letters originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language. Largely unaltered with the exception of extensions (such as diacritics), it used to write English and the ...

, with the following symbols: a (á), ā (ā́), b, č, d, e (é), f, g, ɣ, h, ḥ, i (í), ī (ī́), ǰ, k, q, l, m (m̃), n (ñ), o (ó), p, r, s, š, t, u (ú), ū (ū́), ʏ (ʏ́), v, w (u̯), x, x̊, y, z, ž, ع TITUS transcribes the alphabet thus: a (á), b, č, d, e (é), ĕ (ĕ́), ẹ (ẹ́), ẹ̆ (ẹ̆́), ə (ə́), f, g, ɣ, h, x̣, i (í), ĭ (ĭ́), ī (ī́), ǰ, k, q, l, m (m̃), n (ñ), o (ó), ọ (ọ́), p, r, s, š, t, u (ú), ŭ (ŭ́), ı̥ (í̥), v, u̯, x, x̊, y, z, ž, ع In recent times, Sayfiddīn Mīrzozoda of the Tajik Academy of Sciences has used a modified

Tajik alphabet The Tajik language has been written in three alphabets over the course of its history: an adaptation of the Perso-Arabic script, an adaptation of the Latin script and an adaptation of the Cyrillic script. Any script used specifically for T ...

for writing Yaghnobi. The alphabet is quite unsuitable for Yaghnobi, as it does not distinguish short and long vowels or v and w and it does not mark stress. Latin equivalents are given in parentheses: А а (a), Б б (b), В в (v), Ԝ ԝ (w), Г г (g), Ғ ғ (ɣ), Д д (d), Е е (e/ye), Ё ё (yo), Ж ж (ž), З з (z), И и (i, ī), Ӣ ӣ (ī), й (y), К к (k), Қ қ (q) Л л (l), М м (m), Н н (n), О о (o), П п (p), Р р (r), С с (s), Т т (t), У у (u, ū, ʏ), Ӯ ӯ (ū, ʏ), Ф ф (f), Х х (x), ''Хԝ хԝ'' (x̊), Ҳ ҳ (h, ḥ), Ч ч (č), Ҷ ҷ (ǰ), Ш ш (š), Ъ ъ (ع), Э э (e), Ю ю (yu, yū, yʏ), Я я (ya)

Cyrillic script

The Yaghnobi Alphabet was same as Tajik but with Ԝ. Notes to

Cyrillic The Cyrillic script ( ), Slavonic script or the Slavic script, is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia. It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking cou ...

: # The letter ''й'' never appears at the beginning of a word. Words beginning with ''ya-'', ''yo-'' and ''yu-/yū-/yʏ-'' are written as ''я-'', ''ё-'' and ''ю-'', and the combinations are written in the middle of the word: ''viyóra'' is ''виёра'' . # Use of ''ӣ'' and ''ӯ'' is uncertain, but they seem to distinguish two similar-sounding words: and , and . Perhaps ''ӣ'' is also used as a stress marker as it is also in

, and ''ӯ'' can also be used in

loanwords to indicate a

vowel , but it can have some other unknown use. # In older texts, the alphabet did not use letters ''Ъ ъ'' and ''Э э''. Instead of Tajik ''ъ'', Yaghnobi ''’'' and ''е'' covered both

''е'' and ''э'' for . Later, the letters were integrated into the alphabet so the older was changed into to represent the pronunciation (and not ). Older was changed to . # and are written ''е'' and ''и''. Yaghnobi ''и'' can be after a vowel like in

, and ''ӣ'' after a vowel is . Also, ''е'' has two values: word-initially and after a vowel, it is pronounced , but after a consonant, it is . is rare in Yaghnobi and is only in

Russian Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including: *Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries * Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and p ...

loans, the only example for is , a

loanword. #

letters ''Ц ц'', ''Щ щ'', ''Ы ы'' and ''Ь ь'', which can be used in

loans from

, are not used in Yaghnobi. They are written as they are pronounced by the Yaghnobi speakers, not as they are written originally in

: ''aeroplane'' is in

, written in

and pronounced in

and in

. In Yaghnobi, it is written as and follows the Yaghnobi pronunciation or . The word ''concert'' is borrowed from

in the form ). Compare with

. # According to Sayfiddīn Mīrzozoda, the distinction between sounds and needs to be established. For , ''в'' is used, but for , another letter should be adopted. ''W w'' would be the best choice. For , ''Хw хw'' should be used. Mīrzozoda uses ''w'' in some texts, but it is inconsistent. In his later works (e. g. the textbook Йағнобӣ зивок from 2007), Mīrzozoda does not use the letters я, ю, and ё, replacing them by йа, йу, and йо.

Phonology

Yaghnobi includes 9 monophthongs (3 short, 6 long), 8 diphthongs, and 27 consonants.

Vowels

The diphthongs in Yaghnobi are . only appears in native words in the western dialects, eastern dialects have in its place, except in loanwords. * The monophthongs have these allophonic variants: ** : ** : ** : ** : ** : ** : ** : ** : ** : * was the result of compensatory lengthening (). * In recent loans from

and/or Uzbek can also appear, but its pronunciation usually merges to . * is only recognised by some authorities. It seems that it is an

allophone In phonology, an allophone (; from the Greek , , 'other' and , , 'voice, sound') is a set of multiple possible spoken soundsor '' phones''or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, (as in ' ...

of , originating from historical stressed *''ū'', but historical *''ō'', changed in Yaghnobi to ''ū'', remains unchanged. It seems that is unstable, and it is not recorded in all varieties of Yaghnobi. It is often realised as , as well as . By summary: *''ū́'' ''(under stress)'' > ''ū/ūy/uy/ʏ'' or ''ū'', *''ō'' > ''ū'' ( "goat"; tg, буз, tr=buz, ae, 𐬠𐬏𐬰𐬀, tr=būza). * Before a nasal, can change to , e.g. "Tajikistan", "name". * is considered as a long vowel, however before , its pronunciation is somewhat shorter, and is realised as a half-short (or even short) vowel. Etymologically, the "short" ''e'' before comes from older *''i'' (there is an alternation ''e/i'' before ) if the historical cluster ''*ih'' or ''*iع'' appears in a closed syllable, and ''*i'' changes to ''e''. In open syllables, the change did not take place (that is similar to Tajik). The change can be seen in the verb ''dih-/deh-'': infinitive vs. 3rd sg. present . * In Yaghnobi dialects, there can be seen a different development of historical svarabhakti vowel: in the Western and Transitional dialects, it is rendered as (or under certain circumstances), but in the Eastern dialects it changes to (but also or ): ''*θray'' > ''*θəráy'' > W./Tr. ''tiráy'' vs. E. ''saráy'' but ''*βrāt'' > ''*vərāt'' > W./Tr./E. ''virót''.
When the second vowel is a back vowel, ''*ə'' usually changes to in Western or Transitional dialects: ''*(čə)θβār'' > ''*tfār'' > ''*təfór'' > W./Tr. ''tufór'' (but also ''tifór'') vs. E. ''tafór'', ''*pδūfs-'' > ''*bədū́fs'' > W./Tr./E. ''budū́fs-''. The later change appears also in morphology: verb ''tifárak'' (the form is same in all three dialects) has form in 3rd sg. present ''tufórči'' < ''*təfár-'' < ''*tfar-'' < ''*θβar-''. The alternation can be seen also in Tajik loans where an unstressed vowel can undergo this change: W./Tr. ''širī́k'' vs. E. ''šarī́k'' < Tajik ''/š^arīk/'' "partner", W./Tr. ''xipár'' vs. E. ''xapár'' < Tajik ''/x^abar/'' "news". The former svarabhakti vowels are often ultra-short or reduced in pronunciation, and they can even disappear in fast speech: ''xišáp /xišáp'' vs. ''xⁱšáp'' vs. ''xšap/'' < ''*xəšáp'' < ''*xšap''. * The changes to in verbal stems of type -Car- if an ending containing historic ''*θ'' or ''*t'' is added: ''tifár-'', infinitive ''tifárak'', 1st sg. present ''tifarómišt'' but 3rd sg. present ''tufórči'' (ending ''-či'' comes from older ''-tišt''), 2nd pl. present W./Tr. ''tufórtišt'' E. ''tufórsišt'', ''x°ar-: x°árak : x°arómišt : xórči : xórtišt/xórsišt'' (when changes to after , loses its labilisation). The change takes place with all verbs of Yaghnobi origin and also with older loans from Tajik. For new loans, ''a'' remains unchanged.: ''gudár(ak) : gudórči'' vs. ''pár(ak) : párči'': the first verb is an old loan from Tajik ''guzaštan < guδaštan'', the later a recent loan from ''parrīdan''.

Consonants

* and are palatalised to and respectively before a front vowel or after a front vowel word-finally. * appears as an allophone between vowels or voiced consonants. * , both have allophones and before and , respectively * All voiced consonants are pronounced voiceless at the end of the word when after an unvoiced consonant comes a voiced one. Likewise, unvoiced consonants become voiced by assimilation. In voicing ''q'', the voiced opposition is , not . * The consonants , , , , , , , appear mostly in loanwords. Native words with those sounds are rare and mostly

onomatopoeic Onomatopoeia is the process of creating a word that phonetically imitates, resembles, or suggests the sound that it describes. Such a word itself is also called an onomatopoeia. Common onomatopoeias include animal noises such as ''oink'', '' ...

Morphology

''W'', ''E'' and ''Tr.'' refer to the Western, Eastern and Transitional dialects.

Noun

Case endings: Examples: * kat : obl.sg. ''káti'', pl. ''katt'', obl.pl. ''kátti'' * mayn (W) / men (E) : obl.sg. ''máyni/méni'', pl. ''maynt/ment'', obl.pl. ''máynti/ménti'' * póda : obl.sg. ''póday/póde'', pl. ''pódot'', obl.pl. ''pódoti'' * čalló : obl.sg. ''čallóy'', pl. ''čallót'', obl.pl. ''čallóti'' * zindagī́ : obl.sg. ''zindagī́y'', pl. ''zindagī́t'', obl.pl. ''zindagī́ti'' * mórti : obl.sg. ''mórtiy'', pl. ''mórtit'', obl.pl. ''mórtiti'' * Also, the izofa construction is used in Yaghnobi and appears in phrases and constructions adopted from

or with words of

origin.

Pronouns

The second person plural, ''šumóx'' is also used as the polite form of the second person pronoun.

Numerals

Verb

Personal endings – present: Personal endings –

preterite The preterite or preterit (; abbreviated or ) is a grammatical tense or verb form serving to denote events that took place or were completed in the past; in some languages, such as Spanish, French, and English, it is equivalent to the simple pa ...

(with augment ''a-''): By adding the ending ''-išt'' (''-št'' after a vowel; but ''-or+išt'' > ''-ošt'') to the preterite, the durative preterite is formed. The present

participle In linguistics, a participle () (from Latin ' a "sharing, partaking") is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from ...

is formed by adding ''-na'' to the verbal stem. Past participle (or perfect participle) is formed by addition of ''-ta'' to the stem. The infinitive is formed by addition of ending ''-ak'' to the verbal stem.

Negation In logic, negation, also called the logical complement, is an operation that takes a proposition P to another proposition "not P", written \neg P, \mathord P or \overline. It is interpreted intuitively as being true when P is false, and false ...

is formed by prefix ''na-'', in combination with augment in preterite it changes to ''nē-''. The copula is this:

Lexicon

Knowledge of Yaghnobi lexicon comes from three main works: from a Yaghnobi-

dictionary presented in ''Yaghnobi Texts'' by Andreyev and Peščereva and then from a supplementary word list presented in ''Yaghnobi Grammar'' by Xromov. The last work is ''Yaghnobi-Tajik Dictionary'' compiled by Xromov's student, Sayfiddīn Mīrzozoda, himself a Yaghnobi native speaker. Yaghnobi

words represent the majority of the lexicon (some 60%), followed by words of Turkic origin (up to 5%, mainly from Uzbek) and a few

words (about 2%; through the Russian language, also many international words came to Yaghnobi). Only a third of the lexicon is of Eastern-Iranian origin and can be easily comparable to those known from Sogdian, Ossetian, the

Pamir languages The Pamir languages are an areal group of the Eastern Iranian languages, spoken by numerous people in the Pamir Mountains, primarily along the Panj River and its tributaries. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Pamir language family was ...

Pashto Pashto (,; , ) is an Eastern Iranian language in the Indo-European language family. It is known in historical Persian literature as Afghani (). Spoken as a native language mostly by ethnic Pashtuns, it is one of the two official language ...

Sample texts

An anecdote about Nasreddin

Notes

References

М. С. Андреев, Е. М. Пещерева, Ягнобские тексты с приложением ягнобско-русского словаря, Москва – Ленинград 1957
(M. S. Andrejev, Je. M. Peščereva, Jagnobskije teksty s priloženijem jagnobsko-russkogo slovarja, Moskva – Leningrad 1957) ''(in

)'' * М. Н. Боголюбов, Ягнобский (новосогдийский) язык. Исследование и материалы. Автореферат на соискание ученой степени доктора филологических наук, Ленинград 1956 (M. N.Bogoljubov, Jagnobskij /novosogdijskij/ jazyk. Issledovanija i materialy. Avtoreferat na soiskanije učenoj stepeni doktora filologičeskix nauk, Leningrad 1956) ''(in

)''
М. Н. Боголюбов: Ягнобский язык. In. В. В. Виноградов (ed.): Языки народов СССР. Том первый: Индоевропейские языки. Москва, 1966, 342–361.
(M. N. Bogoljubov: Jagnobskij jazyk. In: V. V. Vinogradov (ed.): Jazyki narodov SSSR. Tom pervyj: Indojevropejskije jazyki. Moskva, 1966, p. 342–361) ''(in

)'' * С. Мирзозода, Яғнобӣ зивок, Душанбе 1998. (S. Mirzozoda, Yaɣnobī zivok, Dušanbe 1998) ''(in

)'' * С. Мирзозода, Луғати яғнобӣ – тоҷикӣ, Душанбе 2002. (S. Mirzozoda, Luɣat-i yaɣnobī – tojikī, Dušanbe 2002) ''(in

)''
Ľ. Novák: Jaghnóbsko-český slovník ''s přehledem jaghnóbské gramatiky''. Яғнобӣ-чехӣ луғат ''яғнобӣ зивоки дастури феҳрастипӣ''. Praha (: Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy v Praze), 2010.
(Ľ. Novák: Yaghnobi-Czech Dictionary with an Outline of Yaghnobi Grammar. Praha 2010) ''(in

Czech Czech may refer to: * Anything from or related to the Czech Republic, a country in Europe ** Czech language ** Czechs, the people of the area ** Czech culture ** Czech cuisine * One of three mythical brothers, Lech, Czech, and Rus' Places * Czech ...

)''
А. Л. Хромов, Ягнобский язык, Москва 1972.
(A. L. Xromov, Jagnobskij jazyk, Moskva 1972) ''(in

)''
А. Л. Хромов, Ягнобский язык, In: В. С. Расторгуева (ed.): Основы иранского языкознания. Новоиранские языки II. – Восточная группа. Москва 1987, p. 644-701.
(A. L. Xromov, Jagnobskij jazyk. In. V. S. Rastorgujeva (ed.): Osnovy iranskogo jazykoznanija. Novoiranskije jazyki II. – Vostočnaja gruppa. Moskva 1987, p. 644–701.) ''(in

)''

External links

* http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/yaghnabis.shtml * https://web.archive.org/web/20060622003001/http://iles.umn.edu/faculty/bashiri/Tajling%20folder/yaghnob.html
Yaghnobi blog & online Yaghnobi-Tajik-English lexicon
{{DEFAULTSORT:Yaghnobi Language Eastern Iranian languages Languages of Tajikistan Yaghnob