Yoga Yajnavalkya

The ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' (, ''Yoga-Yājñavalkya'') is a classical Hindu yoga text in the Sanskrit language. The text is written in the form of a male–female dialogue between the sage Yajnavalkya and Gargi. The text consists of 12 chapters and contains 504 verses.

Like Patanjali's ''Yogasutras'', the ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' describes the eight components of yoga; however, it has different goals. The text contains additional material that is not found in ''Yogasutras'', such as the concept of ''kundalini''. The ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' contains one of the most comprehensive discussion of yoga components such as the ''Pranayama'', '' Pratyahara,'' ''Dhyana'', and '' Dharana''.

The text was influential in the development and practice of the yoga traditions of India before the 12th century.

Author

The text is traditionally attributed to Yajnavalkya, a revered Vedic sage in Hinduism. He is estimated to have lived in around the 8th century BCE, and is associated with several other major ancient texts in Sanskrit, namely the ''Shukla Yajurveda'', the ''Shatapatha Brahmana'', the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'', the Dharmasastra named ''Yājñavalkya Smṛti'', ''Vriddha Yajnavalkya'', and ''Brihad Yajnavalkya''. He is also mentioned in the ''Mahabharata'' and the Puranas,Vishwanath Narayan Mandlik, , pages lvi, xlviii–lix as well as in ancient Jainism texts such as the '' Isibhasiyaim''. These references to Yajnavalkya in other texts, in addition to the eponymous ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'', may be to different sages with the same name.

The actual author of ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' text was probably someone who lived many centuries after the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya, and is unknown. Ian Whicher, a professor of Religion at the University of Manitoba, writes that the author of ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' may be an ancient Yajnavalkya, but this Yajnavalkya is not to be confused with the Vedic-era Yajnavalkya "who is revered in Hinduism for ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''".

David White, a professor of Comparative Religion at the University of California, suggests that the author – a 9th- to 12th-century South Indian with the name of Yajnavalkya – was "the author of two works that combined the eight part practice with teachings on Hatha Yoga and Vedanta Philosophy": the ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' and the ''Yogi Yajnavalkya-smriti''. This issue has since been clarified in a 2017 study of the two works.

According to Dominik Wujastyk – a scholar of Sanskrit literature, Indology and the history of Yoga philosophy and practice, the ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' is an early text on yoga. Many versions of its manuscripts have been discovered, with two pre-10th-century CE palm leaf manuscripts in Sanskrit, while many more versions have been found in other regional languages of the Indian subcontinent. The original text is likely many centuries older. The variations between the manuscripts suggest that this text was compiled and revised by multiple authors.

Chronology

The composition date of ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' is unclear. Prahlad Divanji, an Indologist and Sanskrit scholar, states that the text was composed between the second century BCE and fourth century CE, because Yoga Upanishads and Hatha Yoga texts contain verses from ''Yoga Yajnavalkya''. Divanji cites Tantra texts, Ayurveda tradition texts, and literature of Advaita Vedanta from the 4th century CE, which mention the ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'', thereafter concluding that the text or some version of the ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' text must have been in existence by the 4th century CE. However, adds Divanji, the text is likely to have been composed after Patanjali's ''Yogasutra'', which itself is variously estimated to have composed sometime between 500 BCE and 400 CE. Divanji premises his dating proposal from the observation that ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' expands on ideas in Patanjali's text, such as its list of Yamas, which includes the Patanjali's five plus five additional ones.

A. G. Mohan, an author and yoga teacher, states that the text was likely completed before the 4th century CE. David White, in contrast, suggests the date of composition to be much later, between the 10th and 12th centuries. White states that the 13th-century '' Dattatreya Yoga-shastra'' acknowledges Yajnavalkya, and describes its teachings as "supplementary to the eight part practice as taught by Yajnavalkya", which means that the text was already established and accepted by then. Other manuscripts with devotional, "non-mental" and "mental" yoga texts in the Hindu tradition also refer to teachings of the text, suggesting the text originated before many other yoga texts.

Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, an Indologist, dates the Pune version of a manuscript of the text to about the 13th or 14th century CE, and notes that this version of the ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' quotes verses from Hatha Yoga texts. He also points out that Gargi is mentioned as the wife of Yajnavalkya in the manuscript. However, no other text affirms that Gargi was the wife of Yajnavalkya; rather, Maitreyi and Katyayani are listed as his two wives, leading to the theory that the Pune manuscript is a corrupted and more modern edition of the original text.

According to Dominik Wujastyk, two of its manuscripts – MS Kathmandu NAK 5-696 (now preserved in Nepal), MS London BL Or. 3568 (preserved in the British Library)– are amongst the oldest surviving Sanskrit manuscripts found on the Indian subcontinent. The first is dated to the early 10th-century or late 9th-century, while the one discovered in Nepal is dated to 1024 CE from its colophon. The original text is likely much older than these palm leaf manuscript copies.

Manuscripts

Several versions of the ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' manuscripts are known. The earliest published manuscript of ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' was discovered in Bengal in 1893. Since then, other manuscripts have been discovered with differing numbers of verses. The text published by Divanji in 1954, for example, has over 500 verses, while the manuscript translated by Krishnamacharya and Desikachar, writers and teachers of yoga books, has 460 verses.

A study of the manuscripts reveals that there are two quite different works that are often both called "''Yogayājñavalkya''." The work discussed in this Wikipedia page is often called the ''Yogayājñavalkyagītā'' in the manuscripts. A much older, and quite different work that does not discuss yoga postures, is called the ''Yogiyājñavalkyasmṛti'' or the ''Sārasamuccaya'' of the ''Yogayājñavalkya'' in manuscripts.

Structure

The ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' (or ''Yogayajnavalkya'') text is structured as a conversation between a man (Yajnavalkya) and a woman (Gargi), in the presence of an audience. It is organized into twelve chapters, and cumulatively contains 504 verses.

The text opens with a discussion of virtues and lifestyle of a yogi, with 70 verses in the first chapter dedicated primarily to Yamas and 19 in second dedicated to Niyamas. The yoga postures with breathing and cleansing exercises are described in 149 verses of the third through seventh chapters, wherein the text asserts that these yoga exercises help the yogi master his senses and achieve awareness of his body.

Meditation discussions start in the eighth chapter of the text, where 40 verses discuss how to start and develop meditative practices with the help of Om and resonating sounds, followed by 44 verses in the ninth chapter for advanced meditation that is reflective on one's mind, ''Vedana'' (feelings) and nature of one's ''Atman'' (self, soul). The text dedicates 23 verses in the tenth chapter on ''samadhi'' (concentration) to become aware of the equality of one's ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'' (Universal Ultimate Reality, God).

The final sections of the text discuss the need for a Guru (teacher) along with the duties of a yogin, and what to do when one realizes one has made a mistake. The last chapter briefly discusses the kundalini, the benefits of yoga and the nature of calmness, contentedness in one's mind and consciousness.

Contents

The text opens with reverence and introduction for Yajnavalkya and Gargi, and then gives its purpose: "to disclose the nature of yoga". In verses 10 to 19, Gargi remarks that yoga has been called the best karma, and asks Yajnavalkya to explain yoga to her. Yajnavalkya agrees, but first attributes his knowledge to the Hindu god Brahma who taught him this ''jnana'' (knowledge) and ''karma'' (works).

Knowledge

Yajnavalkya states that there are two paths to attain knowledge. One path is ''Pravritti-karma'', wherein a person is driven by desire and a craving for rewards, forms his will, and then uses his knowledge to act out his free will. The second path is ''Nivritti-karma'', wherein a person is not driven by desire and does not crave for rewards, but he uses his knowledge in his works in a detached way. The ''Pravritti-karma'' path is the cause for suffering and rebirth, while the ''Nivritti-karma'' is liberating and practiced by those who want to end suffering and rebirth.

Verses 1.27–40 are a non-yoga commentary on the duties of four social classes – this section is missing in manuscripts of ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' that contain 460 verses. The commentary presents two theories on the duties of the four classes in terms of ashrama dharmas of student, householder, hermit and mendicant..

According to Bhattacharya's translation it adds that all four ''varnas'' are required to "pay off the debts owed to the sages, men and gods" by practicing ''Brahmacharya'', procreating offspring and performing ''karma''. All four social classes should strive for ''Nivritti-karma'' (work without craving for rewards). According to Desikachar's translation, yoga is open to all, without restrictions to varna or gender.

Verses 1.41–49 state that "karma with knowledge is the means to liberation". Yoga is the essence of this knowledge, and it has eight components: ''Yama'', ''Niyama'', ''Asana'', ''Pranayama'', ''Pratyahara'', ''Dharana'', ''Dhyana'' and ''Samadhi''. Richard Rosen (2001), Review of Yogayajnavalkya Samhita by TKV Desikachar, Yoga Journal, Issue March/April, pages 147–149

Yamas: virtuous restraints of a yoga student

The ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' starts its description of yoga practice with a statement of virtuous self-restraints that a yogi or yogini needs to adhere to. This list is longer than the five yamas listed by Patañjali in ''Yogasūtra'', but similar to those found in other Hindu texts such as the ''Shandilya Upanishad'' and other ancient and medieval-era Yoga texts. Verses 1.50–51 of ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'' list the following ten Yamas (the restraints), while verses 1.52–70 explain what these virtues mean and why they are necessary:

# Ahiṃsā (अहिंसा): nonviolence, nonharmfulness by action, with word or in thoughtJames Lochtefeld, "Yama (2)", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. , page 777
# Satya (सत्य): truthfulness
# Asteya (अस्तेय): not stealing
# Brahmacharya (ब्रह्मचर्य): celibacy, fidelity to one's partnerArti Dhand (2002), The dharma of ethics, the ethics of dharma: Quizzing the ideals of Hinduism, Journal of Religious Ethics, 30(3), pages 347–372
# Dayā (दया): kindness, compassion
# Ārjava (आर्जव): no hypocrisy, sincerity
# Kṣamā (क्षमा): forgivenessStuart Sovatsky (1998), Words from the Soul: Time East/West Spirituality and Psychotherapeutic Narrative, State University of New York, , page 21
# Dhṛti (धृति): fortitude
# Mitāhāra (मितहार): moderation in diet
# Śauca (शौच): purity, cleanliness

Verse 1.69 asserts that in a cleansed body resides a peaceful mind, and when this mind achieves purity, ''Atmavidya'' (knowledge of soul) becomes feasible.

Niyamas: virtuous observances of a yoga student

Chapter 2 begins with a list of ten Niyamas (the Observances), followed by an explanation of each in the rest of the chapter. The list is longer than the list of five found in Patanjali's ''Yogasutras'', but similar to those found in the ''Shandilya'' and '' Varaha Upanishads'',SV Bharti (2001), Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: With the Exposition of Vyasa, Motilal Banarsidas, , Appendix I, pages 680–691 the ''Hatha Yoga Pradipika'',Mikel Burley (2000), Haṭha-Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice, Motilal Banarsidas, , pages 190–191 and verses 552 to 557 in Book 3 of the Tirumandhiram of Tirumular, in the sense of positive duties, desirable behaviors and discipline. The list of the ten niyamas are:

# Tapas: austerity, persistence and perseverance in one's purposeSA Bhagwat (2008), Yoga and Sustainability. Journal of Yoga, Fall/Winter 2008, 7(1): 1–14
# Santoṣa: contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances as they are, optimism for selfN Tummers (2009), Teaching Yoga for Life, , page 16–17
# Āstika: faith in merit and demerit
# Dāna: generosity, charity, sharing with others
# Īśvarapūjana: worship of the Ishvara (Brahman, Vishnu, Rudra, God/Supreme Being, True Self)
# Siddhānta śrāvaṇa: listening to the Vedas and Upanishads, texts about virtues and principles
# Hrī: shyness, modesty, remorse and acceptance of one's past, humility
# Mati: faith in self and duties, reflection to reconcile conflicting ideas
# Japa: steady reading of the Vedas, repetition of mantras or sacred sounds set in poetic meters, either with sound or silently in one's mind
# Vratam: vows and self-promise to focus and achieve appropriate self set goals on Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.

Richard Rosen, yoga teacher and a contributing editor at Yoga Journal, states that the first two chapters provide the moral foundations of its yoga teachings, and are more detailed than many other yoga texts in the Indian traditions.

Asanas: the yoga postures

Chapter 3 opens with a list of eight ''asanas'' (postures), followed by the description of each one. The ''asanas'' are of two types: one set is for meditative contemplation, and the other for cleansing the body. Both are said to be important in the journey of yoga.॥ योगयाज्ञवल्क्य तृतीयोऽध्यायः ॥
Sanskrit text of ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'', SanskritDocuments Archives (2009) Different ''asanas'' focus on different organ groups. Of the eight ''asanas'', the text discusses two variations each for the ''Swastikasana'' and the ''Mukta Sirsasana'' in verses 3.3–5 and 3.13–14 respectively, with claims that each ''asana'' helps cleanse the body when these are practiced with Yamas and Niyamas.

Cleansing ''asanas'' are those that when practiced for short periods of time help the body prevent or correct internal imbalances and tone inner organs; while meditative ''asanas'' are those postures, either sitting or standing, that one can maintain steadily and comfortably for extended periods of time. In both, a proper posture is achieved when one can combine relaxed steadiness with deep breathing exercises. Such comfortable and stable ''asanas'' are necessary for cleansing of the ''Nadi'' (Astral Tubes which are around seventy two thousand running throughout the human body) through the ''Pranayama'' stage of yoga. This view is shared by other yoga texts, such as in verse 5.2 of ''Gheranda Samhita''.RSC Vasu (1917, Reprint 1996), Gheranda Samhita, Munshiram Manoharlal, , page 38 The Padmasana (lotus position) is esteemed for both cleansing and meditative contemplation.

A theory of human body and inner fire

Gargi inquires in chapter 4 about the nature of ''Nadis'', the human body and how vital airs function in it. Yajnavalkya begins his reply by asserting that the height of every adult human being is about 96 times the width of his or her ''Angula'' (thumb).॥ योगयाज्ञवल्क्य चतुर्थोऽध्यायः ॥
Sanskrit text of ''Yoga Yajnavalkya'', SanskritDocuments Archives (2009)

The ''Prana'' (breath, vital air) of the body is dispersed within and outside the body. The first aim of yoga is to become aware and control this vital air, to be equal to or lower than the inner fire within one's body. This inner fire resides in the middle part of the body, and he calls it the ''Nabhi'' (center) and a Chakra. This is the residence of the ''Jiva'', and the vital air nourishes it from below while one is alive. Just above this ''Nabhi'' is the kundalini which normally is dormant. Yoga awakens her, by bringing vital air and heat to her.

Verses 4.26–35 state that the human body has fourteen ''nadis'' (Astral Tubes which are around seventy two thousand running throughout the human body), of which three are primary. ''Sushumna'' (Sanskrit: सुषुम्णा) is the most important, as it extends all along the spinal cord and reaches into the head, sustaining the whole body. Vishnu is the deity whose power propels ''Sushumna'' according to verse 4.31. On both sides of the ''Sushumna'' reside the ''Ida'' and ''Pingala'' vessels, the former connected to the moon and the latter to the sun. These three drive the three Guṇa

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