Völsunga saga
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The ''Völsunga saga'' (often referred to in English as the ''Volsunga Saga'' or ''Saga of the Völsungs'') is a
legendary saga A legendary saga or ''fornaldarsaga'' (literally, "story/history of the ancient era") is a Norse saga that, unlike the Icelanders' sagas, takes place before the settlement of Iceland.The article ''Fornaldarsagor'' in ''Nationalencyklopedin'' (1991 ...
, a late 13th-century poetic rendition in
Old Norse Old Norse, Old Nordic, or Old Scandinavian, is a stage of development of North Germanic languages, North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and t ...
of the origin and decline of the
Völsung In Norse mythology, Völsung ( non, Vǫlsungr ) was the son of Rerir and the eponymous ancestor of the ill-fated Völsung clan (), which includes the well known Norse hero Sigurð. He was murdered by the Geatish king Siggeir and later avenged b ...
clan (including the story of
Sigurd Sigurd ( non, Sigurðr ) or Siegfried (Middle High German: ''Sîvrit'') is a legendary hero of Germanic heroic legend, who killed a dragon and was later murdered. It is possible he was inspired by one or more figures from the Frankish Merovin ...
and
Brynhild Brunhild, also known as Brunhilda or Brynhild ( non, Brynhildr , gmh, Brünhilt, german: Brünhild , label= Modern German or ), is a female character from Germanic heroic legend. She may have her origins in the Visigothic princess Brunhilda ...
and the destruction of the Burgundians). It is one of the most famous legendary sagas and an example of a "heroic saga" that deals with
Germanic heroic legend Germanic heroic legend (german: germanische Heldensage) is the heroic literary tradition of the Germanic-speaking peoples, most of which originates or is set in the Migration Period (4th-6th centuries AD). Stories from this time period, to which ...
. The saga covers topics including the quarrel between
Sigi In the Völsung cycle, Sigi is the ancestor of the Völsung lineage. In the ''Völsunga saga'', he is said to be one of the sons of Odin. He is also listed among Odin's sons in the '' Nafnaþulur''. He has a son called Rerir. He was outlawed for ...
and
Skaði In Norse mythology, Skaði (; Old Norse: ; sometimes anglicized as Skadi, Skade, or Skathi) is a jötunn and goddess associated with bowhunting, skiing, winter, and mountains. Skaði is attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th cent ...
, a huge family tree of great kings and powerful conquerors, the quest led by
Sigmund In Norse mythology, Sigmund ( non, Sigmundr , ang, Sigemund) is a hero whose story is told in the Völsunga saga. He and his sister, Signý, are the children of Völsung and his wife Hljod. Sigmund is best known as the father of Sigurð the d ...
and Sinfjǫtli to save princess
Signý Signy or Signe ( non, Signý, sometimes known as german: Sieglinde) is the name of two heroines in two connected legends from Norse mythology which were very popular in medieval Scandinavia. Both appear in the Völsunga saga, which was adapted ...
from the evil king
Siggeir Siggeir is the king of Gautland (i.e. Götaland/Geatland, but in some translations also rendered as ''Gothland''), in the '' Völsunga saga''. In ''Skáldskaparmál'' he is given as a Sikling and a relative of Sigar who killed the hero Hagbard. ' ...
, and, most famously, Sigurd killing the serpent/dragon
Fáfnir In Nordic and wider Germanic mythology, Fáfnir (Old Norse pronunciation: fɑːvnər is a mighty dwarf who is the son of Hreidmar, and brother of Regin and Ótr. Once cursed by Andvari's ring and gold, Fafnir slays his father out of greed ...
and obtaining the cursed ring
Andvaranaut In Norse mythology, Andvaranaut ( 12th c. Old Norse: , "Andvari's Gift"), first owned by Andvari, is a magic ring that could help with finding sources of gold. The mischievous god Loki stole Andvari's treasure and the ring. In revenge, Andvari ...
that Fáfnir guarded.


Context and overview

The saga is largely based on the
epic poetry An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. ...
of the historic ''
Elder Edda The ''Poetic Edda'' is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems, which is distinct from the ''Prose Edda'' written by Snorri Sturluson. Several versions exist, all primarily of text from the Icelandic med ...
''. The earliest known pictorial representation of this tradition is the
Ramsund carving The Sigurd stones form a group of eight or nine Swedish runic inscriptions (five or six runestones, two natural rocks, and a baptismal font) and one picture stone that depict imagery from the Germanic heroic legend of Sigurd the dragon slayer. Th ...
in
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
, which was created . The origins of the material are considerably older, however, and it in part echoes real events in Central Europe during the Migration Period, chiefly the destruction of the
Kingdom of the Burgundians The Kingdom of the Burgundians or First Kingdom of Burgundy was established by Germanic Burgundians in the Rhineland and then in eastern Gaul in the 5th century. History Background The Burgundians, a Germanic tribe, may have migrated from the ...
by the
Huns The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part ...
in the fifth century. Some of the poems contained in the ''
Elder Edda The ''Poetic Edda'' is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems, which is distinct from the ''Prose Edda'' written by Snorri Sturluson. Several versions exist, all primarily of text from the Icelandic med ...
'' relate episodes from the Völsung legend. On the other hand, the only surviving medieval manuscript of the saga, Ny kgl. Saml. 1824 b 4to, which is held by the Royal Library of Denmark, dates to about 1400. In this manuscript, the saga leads straight in to '' Ragnars saga loðbrókar''.


Characters


Contents

The saga can be divided into five phases: the preliminary generations, Sigurd and his foster family, Sigurd and the Gjukingar, Gudrun and the Budlingar, and Gudrun's last marriage.


Volsung's ancestors

The ''Völsunga saga'' begins with
Sigi In the Völsung cycle, Sigi is the ancestor of the Völsung lineage. In the ''Völsunga saga'', he is said to be one of the sons of Odin. He is also listed among Odin's sons in the '' Nafnaþulur''. He has a son called Rerir. He was outlawed for ...
, the ancestor of the Völsung lineage, and
Skaði In Norse mythology, Skaði (; Old Norse: ; sometimes anglicized as Skadi, Skade, or Skathi) is a jötunn and goddess associated with bowhunting, skiing, winter, and mountains. Skaði is attested in the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th cent ...
. Sigi was more important since he was richer and more powerful and was said to be a son of
Odin Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
. In the saga, Skaði owns a
thrall A thrall ( non, þræll, is, þræll, fo, trælur, no, trell, træl, da, træl, sv, träl) was a slave or serf in Scandinavian lands during the Viking Age. The corresponding term in Old English was . The status of slave (, ) contrasts wi ...
named Breði whom Sigi takes on a hunting trip all day and evening. When they compare their skills, Breði's outshine Sigi's. Enraged, Sigi murders Breði and hides his body in a
snowdrift A snowdrift is a deposit of snow sculpted by wind into a mound during a snowstorm. Snowdrifts resemble sand dunes and are formed in a similar manner, namely, by wind moving light snow and depositing it when the wind has virtually stopped, us ...
. When Sigi returns, he lies to Skaði that Breði rode away into the forest. But Skaði, suspecting something amiss, goes off with his men in search of Breði and discovers his body in the snowdrift. Skaði declares the drift "Breði's drift", and soon every large drift comes to be called "Breði's drift" in his honor. Skaði casts Sigi out, leaving him "a wolf in hallowed places". After much adventuring, Odin leads Sigi to a land where some
longship Longships were a type of specialised Scandinavian warships that have a long history in Scandinavia, with their existence being archaeologically proven and documented from at least the fourth century BC. Originally invented and used by the Nors ...
s lay. He and his troops (that his unnamed father gave him) take up raiding. Sigi becomes a successful raider and warlord before seizing a kingdom called
Hunaland Hunaland and its people are mentioned several times in the Poetic Edda, and in the Fornaldarsagas. Its origins are partly the old Frankish kingdom (the Franks were once called ''Hugones'', in Latin, and ''Hūgas'' in Old English) and partly in the ...
to rule. His wife's brothers eventually become envious of Sigi's power and wealth and raise an army against him. In the following battle, Sigi is killed and his enemies take over the kingdom. Later, Sigi's son
Rerir In ''Völsunga saga'', Rerir, the son of Sigi, succeeds his murdered father and avenges his death. He rules in Hunaland and becomes a powerful ruler. Rerir's son is Völsung. Rerir and his wife were unable to have children until the goddess Fri ...
avenges his father's death, killing his uncles and taking his father's throne. However, he and his wife have no heir, so they turn to Odin and
Frigg Frigg (; Old Norse: ) is a goddess, one of the Æsir, in Germanic mythology. In Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about her, she is associated with marriage, prophecy, clairvoyance and motherhood, and dwells in the wet ...
to pray for one. In response, Odin and Frigg send one of their wish maidens to take the form of a crow and place a magical apple on Rerir's lap. When Rerir shares it with the queen, she conceives and endures an extraordinarily long pregnancy. While awaiting the birth of his heir, Rerir goes on a campaign to pacify the land, but he catches sick and dies before returning. Since the queen knows that she has not long left before the pregnancy kills her, she orders her baby to be cut from her. She dies in the process, but the male child survives and is named
Völsung In Norse mythology, Völsung ( non, Vǫlsungr ) was the son of Rerir and the eponymous ancestor of the ill-fated Völsung clan (), which includes the well known Norse hero Sigurð. He was murdered by the Geatish king Siggeir and later avenged b ...
.


The life of king Völsung

Völsung In Norse mythology, Völsung ( non, Vǫlsungr ) was the son of Rerir and the eponymous ancestor of the ill-fated Völsung clan (), which includes the well known Norse hero Sigurð. He was murdered by the Geatish king Siggeir and later avenged b ...
marries Hljod, the daughter of a
jötunn A (also jotun; in the normalised scholarly spelling of Old Norse, ; ; plural / ) or, in Old English, (plural ) is a type of supernatural being in Germanic mythology. In Norse mythology, they are often contrasted with gods ( Æsir and Vani ...
and the maiden who gave the queen the golden apple. Völsung and Hljod have ten sons and one daughter, the two eldest and strongest being the boy and girl twins
Sigmund In Norse mythology, Sigmund ( non, Sigmundr , ang, Sigemund) is a hero whose story is told in the Völsunga saga. He and his sister, Signý, are the children of Völsung and his wife Hljod. Sigmund is best known as the father of Sigurð the d ...
and
Signý Signy or Signe ( non, Signý, sometimes known as german: Sieglinde) is the name of two heroines in two connected legends from Norse mythology which were very popular in medieval Scandinavia. Both appear in the Völsunga saga, which was adapted ...
. King Völsung has a grand palace built for him, with the great hall built around a massive tree known as
Barnstokkr In Norse mythology, Barnstokkr (Old Norse, literally "child- trunk"Byock (1990:113).) is a tree that stands in the center of King Völsung's hall. Barnstokkr is attested in chapters 2 and 3 of the ''Völsunga saga'', written in the 13th century ...
() to stand proudly over Völsung's guests. One day,
Siggeir Siggeir is the king of Gautland (i.e. Götaland/Geatland, but in some translations also rendered as ''Gothland''), in the '' Völsunga saga''. In ''Skáldskaparmál'' he is given as a Sikling and a relative of Sigar who killed the hero Hagbard. ' ...
, the king of Gautland, comes to visit Völsung and ask for Signý's hand in marriage. Völsung is pleased at the idea of Signý marrying Siggeir, but Signý despises him. King Völsung arranges the marriage anyway. On the wedding day, as everyone is celebrating, a hooded man with one eye comes into the hall, draws a sword, and thrusts it into
Barnstokkr In Norse mythology, Barnstokkr (Old Norse, literally "child- trunk"Byock (1990:113).) is a tree that stands in the center of King Völsung's hall. Barnstokkr is attested in chapters 2 and 3 of the ''Völsunga saga'', written in the 13th century ...
. The mysterious figure says that whoever can pull the sword from Barnstokkr will receive it as a gift, then abruptly leaves. Although the saga does not explicitly say who the man is, his hood and missing eye suggest he is
Odin Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
. Indeed, later in the saga it is made clear that such a man could be no one but the All-father, as the figure returns to set more formidable challenges, and the sword later demonstrates its divine powers. Many people attempt to draw the sword from the tree, but no one can make it budge until Sigmund Völsungson comes and pulls the sword out with ease. King Siggeir offers to buy the sword, but Sigmund refuses. That night Siggeir and Signý sleep together, and by the next day she is pressuring King Völsung to allow them to divorce. Although his daughter is in distress, he reluctantly refuses, so as to maintain their alliance with Gautland. But when Signý travels to Gautland, she finds out that Siggeir is plotting to overthrow Völsung and add Hunaland to his empire. Signý returns to Hunaland to gather Völsung, Sigmund, and their most powerful men, telling them that they must raise an army and invade Gautland if they do not want Hunaland to fall. Völsung agrees to the invasion, sending his army to the shore of Gautland to overthrow and kill Siggeir. After a long, grim, and intense battle, the Völsungs are forced to concede defeat after the deaths of the king and one of his sons.


The war against Siggeir

Signý Signy or Signe ( non, Signý, sometimes known as german: Sieglinde) is the name of two heroines in two connected legends from Norse mythology which were very popular in medieval Scandinavia. Both appear in the Völsunga saga, which was adapted ...
goes to speak with King Siggeir as his wife, begging him to tie her brothers up instead of killing them. Siggeir agrees, thinking a slower death more suitable for them, so the brothers are tied up by their feet and hands and thrown into the woods to die. Signý, hoping for this outcome, sends one of her most trusted men to find her brothers. When he finds them, they tell him that one has been killed and eaten by a she-wolf. For some reason, however, he is unable to untie them, and the she-wolf continues to come every night until only
Sigmund In Norse mythology, Sigmund ( non, Sigmundr , ang, Sigemund) is a hero whose story is told in the Völsunga saga. He and his sister, Signý, are the children of Völsung and his wife Hljod. Sigmund is best known as the father of Sigurð the d ...
is left alive. On the day before he would die, Signý's scout returns to the forest and gives him honey, instructing Sigmund to put some in his mouth and smear it on his face. When the she-wolf comes she begins to lick Sigmund's face, and intrigued by the sweetness, she puts her tongue in his mouth to lick the honey out. As soon as she does so, Sigmund bites down on her tongue, ripping it out as the beast struggles and thereby killing the she-wolf. The sage mentions that this wolf may have been Siggeir's mother who took the shape of a she-wolf through "witchcraft and sorcery". Sigmund stays where he is so that Signý's scouts can find him again. They do, informing Signý of what happened. She visits him and helps him dig an underground base, bringing him enough supplies to survive in secret while they plot revenge against Siggeir. One night, while Signý is sitting in her chamber, a
völva In Germanic paganism, a seeress is a woman said to have the ability to foretell future events and perform sorcery. They are also referred to with many other names meaning "prophetess", "staff bearer", "wise woman" and "sorceress", and they are ...
comes and asks her to exchange forms. They do, and the seeress sleeps with Siggeir that night without the king's notice. Meanwhile, Signý travels to Sigmund's base in the form of the völva, telling him that she had gotten lost in the woods. Sigmund accepts her in, and they have incestuous sexual intercourse. After changing back, Signý discovers she is pregnant. She gives birth to Sinfjǫtli. When Sinfjǫtli is ten, Signý puts him and her other sons through a painful test to see who is worthy of serving Sigmund. Although the others cry out in pain, Sinfjǫtli doesn't flinch. Together, Sigmund and Sinfjǫtli plot revenge against King Siggeir. One night, they sneak into Siggeir's dwelling and try to assassinate him, but one of Siggeir's children catch them and have them seized. The two are thrown in a mound but escape with the power of Sigmund's sword that Signý returns to him. They kill Siggeir by making him walk into a bonfire. Signý walks in with him, wanting to die with her husband. Sigmund takes the throne, becoming a great and powerful ruler. He marries
Borghild In Norse mythology, Borghild was the first wife of Sigmund. They had two sons, Hamund and Helgi. ''Völsunga saga'' Sinfjötli (Borghild's step-son) "saw a lovely woman and strongly desired to have her. The brother of Borghild, the wife of ...
and by her has a son named
Helgi Helge or Helgi is a Scandinavian languages, Scandinavian, German language, German, and Dutch language, Dutch mostly male name. The name is derived from Proto-Norse ''Hailaga'' with its original meaning being ''dedicated to the gods''. For its Sla ...
. As an adult, Helgi meets
Sigrún Sigrún ( Old Norse "victory rune"Orchard (1997:194).) is a valkyrie in Norse mythology. Her story is related in '' Helgakviða Hundingsbana I'' and '' Helgakviða Hundingsbana II'', in the '' Poetic Edda''. The original editor annotated that s ...
, daughter of King
Högne ''For other people named Högne, see Haguna.'' Högne was a king of Östergötland who appears in sources of Norse mythology. ''Heimskringla'' Snorri Sturluson wrote that he was the king of Östergötland and that he had a son named Hildur and d ...
, and wishes to marry her. She tells him that her father has promised her to
Hothbrodd Hothbrodd was a legendary Norse hero, details of whose life appear in several related variations. In the legends of the Ylfing Helgi Hundingsbane, he was the son of king Granmar of Södermanland, and he was killed by Helgi. The ''Chronicon Leth ...
, so Helgi and Sinfjǫtli raise an army and invade Hothbrodd's realm. Helgi kills Hothbrodd, marries Sigrún, and usurps Hothbrodd's kingship. Sinfjǫtli also meets a woman he wishes to marry, and to win her he fights and kills another man, who happens to be Borghild's brother. In revenge, Borghild kills Sinfjǫtli by poison. A grieving Sigmund rejects Borghild and drives her out of his kingdom. As an old man, Sigmund marries
Hjördís Hjördís or Hiordis in Norse mythology is the wife of Sigmund, and the mother of Sigurd. Her father was a king named Eylimi. She is mentioned in the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda. It is also a female given name in Scandinavia, as Hjördis in Swe ...
, daughter of King Eylimi. The suitor she rejected in Sigmund's favor brings an army against him, and Sigmund is mortally wounded in the battle. Hjördís finds her wounded husband, who entrusts to her the shards of his sword, prophesying that they will be reforged someday for their yet unborn son. He dies, and Hjördís is taken in by Alf, son of Hjalprek, king of Denmark. Shortly thereafter she gives birth to
Sigurd Sigurd ( non, Sigurðr ) or Siegfried (Middle High German: ''Sîvrit'') is a legendary hero of Germanic heroic legend, who killed a dragon and was later murdered. It is possible he was inspired by one or more figures from the Frankish Merovin ...
, her son by Sigmund. Sigurd is fostered in Hjalprek's court by
Regin In Norse mythology, Reginn (Old Norse: ᚱᛁᚼᛁᚾ/ᚱᛁᚽᛁᚿ ; often anglicized as Regin or Regan) is a son of Hreiðmarr and the foster father of Sigurd. His brothers are Fafnir and Ótr. Regin in the sagas When Loki mistakenly ...
n, his tutor, and grows to manhood there.


Sigurd and his foster family

Sigurd Sigurd ( non, Sigurðr ) or Siegfried (Middle High German: ''Sîvrit'') is a legendary hero of Germanic heroic legend, who killed a dragon and was later murdered. It is possible he was inspired by one or more figures from the Frankish Merovin ...
grows up to be strong, brave, and very popular. One day, he enters the forest looking for a horse and meets Odin, who gives him
Grani In Scandinavian heroic legend, Grani (Old Norse: ) is a horse owned by the hero Sigurd. He is the horse that Sigurd receives through advice from the Norse god ( Odin). Grani is a descendant of Odin's own steed, Sleipnir. Attestations In cha ...
, who is descended from Odin's own Sleipnir and better than any other horse. With Grani, Reginn believes Sigurd capable of a heroic quest and decides to tell him the story of
Fáfnir In Nordic and wider Germanic mythology, Fáfnir (Old Norse pronunciation: fɑːvnər is a mighty dwarf who is the son of Hreidmar, and brother of Regin and Ótr. Once cursed by Andvari's ring and gold, Fafnir slays his father out of greed ...
the dragon. Reginn's father Hreiðmarr had three sons: himself,
Ótr In Norse mythology, Ótr (Old Norse: ; alternately: Ott, Oter, Otr, Ottar, Ottarr, Otter) is a dwarf. He is the son of the king Hreidmar and the brother of Fafnir and Regin. According to the Prose Edda, Ótr could change into any form and used ...
, and Fáfnir. Ótr was able to shapeshift into an otter-like fisherman, Fáfnir was large and fierce, and Reginn was skilled with ironwork. One day, Odin, Loki, and
Hœnir In Norse mythology, Hœnir (also Hǿnir; modern Icelandic , modern Swedish ) is one of the Æsir. He is mentioned in Vǫluspá as one of the three gods (along with Odin and Lóðurr) that created the first humans. Attestations In ''Völuspá'', ...
were fishing and killed Ótr in his otter shape, then skinned and ate him. King Hreiðmarr found out and demanded that they fill and cover the skin with gold. Loki took the dwarf
Andvari In Norse mythology, Andvari ( 12th c. Old Norse: ; "careful one") is a dwarf who lives underneath a waterfall and has the power to change himself into a pike (gedda) at will. Andvari had a magical ring Andvaranaut, which helped him become w ...
's gold and the debt was paid. But out of Andvari's treasure, he cursed a ring called
Andvaranaut In Norse mythology, Andvaranaut ( 12th c. Old Norse: , "Andvari's Gift"), first owned by Andvari, is a magic ring that could help with finding sources of gold. The mischievous god Loki stole Andvari's treasure and the ring. In revenge, Andvari ...
("Andvari's gift"), warning that it would bring death to anyone who owned it. Later, Fáfnir killed his father, hid the body, and took all the treasure, including the Advaranaut, to his hoard. There, he turned into an evil dragon. Reginn, meanwhile, became a smith for King Hjalprek. Reginn convinces Sigurd to slay Fáfnir and take the treasure. In preparation, he smiths two swords one after another for Sigurd, but they break when he tests them. Sigurd's mother gives him the pieces of his father's broken sword and Reginn reforges them into a legendary sword called
Gram The gram (originally gramme; SI unit symbol g) is a unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI) equal to one one thousandth of a kilogram. Originally defined as of 1795 as "the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equal to th ...
. When Sigurd tests it, it splits the iron anvil down to its base. Before going to kill Fáfnir, he goes to the soothsayer Grípir to ask about his fate. Grípir tells him after some hesitation, and Sigurd returns to Reginn, saying he must avenge his father Sigmund before he can kill the dragon. Sigurd sails to
Hunding Hunding is a municipality in the district of Deggendorf in Bavaria in Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, a ...
's kingdom and kills many and burns settlements. A brutal battle ensues between him and King Lyngvi and Hunding's sons, but Sigurd kills them all with Gram. He returns to Reginn to prepare to meet Fáfnir. Sigurd travels to
Fáfnir In Nordic and wider Germanic mythology, Fáfnir (Old Norse pronunciation: fɑːvnər is a mighty dwarf who is the son of Hreidmar, and brother of Regin and Ótr. Once cursed by Andvari's ring and gold, Fafnir slays his father out of greed ...
's territory and digs a ditch to hide in and stab the dragon from.
Odin Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
comes and advises him to dig several ditches for the blood to flow into, which he does. As Fáfnir crawls over the ditch, Sigurd stabs him through the heart. As the dragon is dying, he asks Sigurd about his lineage and says that his gold and Reginn will be the cause of Sigurd's death. Sigurd returns to Reginn, who was hiding in the heather during Fáfnir's slaying. Reginn drinks Fáfnir's blood and asks Sigurd to roast Fáfnir's heart and let him eat it. When Sigurd tests whether the heart is fully cooked and licks his finger, he suddenly understands the speech of birds. He overhears the nuthatches talking to each other about Reginn's plan to kill him. They say that he should eat the heart himself, kill Reginn, take the gold, and find
Brynhild Brunhild, also known as Brunhilda or Brynhild ( non, Brynhildr , gmh, Brünhilt, german: Brünhild , label= Modern German or ), is a female character from Germanic heroic legend. She may have her origins in the Visigothic princess Brunhilda ...
. Sigurd kills Reginn, eats some of the heart, takes as much treasure as he can carry, including the Helm of Terror and the Andvaranaut, and rides off on Grani. Sigurd rides to the land of the
Franks The Franks ( la, Franci or ) were a group of Germanic peoples whose name was first mentioned in 3rd-century Roman sources, and associated with tribes between the Lower Rhine and the Ems River, on the edge of the Roman Empire.H. Schutz: Tools, ...
and finds a sleeping warrior. He removes the helmet, discovers it is a woman, and cuts her
chainmail Chain mail (properly called mail or maille but usually called chain mail or chainmail) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. It was in common military use between the 3rd century BC and ...
open. She wakes and tells him Odin stabbed her with a sleeping thorn and mandated that she must marry, but she refuses to marry any man who knows fear. Brynhild gives him beer and recites a poem about how to use different magical runes. Following this, Brynhild gives Sigurd several pieces of sound advice on how to navigate society and survive, and they agree to marry each other.


Sigurd and the Gjukingar

Sigurd rides to the estate of Heimr, husband of Bekkhild, Brynhild's sister. Sigurd catches sight of Brynhild weaving a golden tapestry in the castle. Alsvid tells him to not think about women, but after Brynhild saying they are not fated to be together, they renew their vows. Meanwhile, a skilled sorceress named Grimhild is married to King Gjuki, and together they have three sons:
Gunnar Gunnar is a male first name of Nordic origin (''Gunnarr'' in Old Norse). The name Gunnar means fighter, soldier, and attacker, but mostly is referred to by the Viking saying which means Brave and Bold warrior (''gunnr'' "war" and ''arr'' "warrior ...
, Hǫgni, and
Guthormr Gundomar I (also Gundimar, Godomar, or Godemar) was eldest son and successor of Gebicca, King of the Burgundians. He succeeded his father in 406 or 407 and reigned until 411. He was succeeded by his brother Giselher. In the ''Nibelungenlied'', ...
. Their daughter
Guðrún Guðrún is one of the most frequently given female names in Iceland. In 2004, it was ranked first before Anna and Sigríður.Lonely Planet Iceland Fran Parnell, Etain O'Carroll - 2007 - Page 23 "Most popular girl's name: Guðrún" According to ...
has a dream about a golden hawk, which Brynhild interprets as her future husband. They then talk of Sigurd's excellence and the prophecies about him before his birth. Then Guðrún has a dream about a handsome stag, which Brynhild interprets as Sigurd. Brynhild prophesies she will marry Sigurd, lose him, marry Atli the Hun, lose her brothers, then kill Atli. Sigurd comes to Gjuki with his horse
Grani In Scandinavian heroic legend, Grani (Old Norse: ) is a horse owned by the hero Sigurd. He is the horse that Sigurd receives through advice from the Norse god ( Odin). Grani is a descendant of Odin's own steed, Sleipnir. Attestations In cha ...
and his treasure from the dragon
Fáfnir In Nordic and wider Germanic mythology, Fáfnir (Old Norse pronunciation: fɑːvnər is a mighty dwarf who is the son of Hreidmar, and brother of Regin and Ótr. Once cursed by Andvari's ring and gold, Fafnir slays his father out of greed ...
. Grimhild gives him a drink that makes him forget about Brynhild, wanting him to marry Guðrún. Gunnar and the others swear brotherhood with Sigurd, and he marries Guðrún. She eats some of the dragon's heart, and bears Sigurd a son, Sigmund. Meanwhile, Grimhild encourages Gunnar to marry Brynhild. Sigurd and the three brothers ride to King
Buðli Buðli or ''Budli'' is the name of one or two legendary kings from the Scandinavian Legendary sagas. ''Ásmundar saga kappabana'' According to the ''Ásmundar saga kappabana'', Buðli was a Swedish king, and the father of Hildr. The saga relate ...
for Gunnar to ask for Brynhild's hand. She is inside a hall surrounded by fire and has vowed an oath to marry whoever can ride through the flames, believing only Sigurd could be brave enough to do so. Gunnar can't take on this task, so he and Sigurd exchange shapes, and Sigurd rides through the fire and asks Brynhild to marry him as Gunnar. Brynhild reluctantly agrees because of her oath and leaves her daughter
Aslaug Aslaug ( non, Áslaug ), also called Aslög, Kráka (O.N.: ) or Kraba, is a figure in Norse mythology who appears in Snorri's Edda, the Völsunga saga and in the saga of Ragnar Lodbrok as one of his wives. Aslaug in legend According to the ...
by Sigurd to be raised with Heimr. Years later, Brynhild and Guðrún are arguing about whose husband is better, and Guðrún shows her the ring which Brynhild had given Sigurd. Brynhild recognizes the ring and realizes she has been tricked. She tells Gunnar she knows he deceived her and that she will kill him and seek revenge on Grimhild. Brynhild takes to her room and Sigurd comes to try to make amends by asking her to marry him, but she rejects his offer, wanting to die and bring doom upon everyone involved. Gunnar consults with his brothers whether they should kill Sigurd to keep Brynhild or not. They decide to give snake's and wolf's meat to Guthormr to turn him violent and kill Sigurd. He goes into Sigurd's bed chamber and stabs him while asleep. Sigurd wakes up and before dying, throws Gram after him as he leaves, cutting Guthormr in two. Brynhild laughs when she hears Guðrún sobbing, and Guðrún tells Gunnar he made a mistake by killing Sigurd. Brynhild also tells Gunnar he has made a mistake and stabs herself. But before she dies, she foretells the rest of Gunnar's and Guðrún's future. Gunnar fulfills Brynhild's last request, that he put her on a bonfire with Sigurd, Guthormr, and Sigurd's 3-year-old son.


Guðrún and the Budlingar

Everyone mourns Sigurd's death and Guðrún runs away, ending up with King Half in Denmark. Grimhild finds Guðrún and orders her to marry King Atli against her will, which she unhappily does. One night, Atli has a dream that he is fed his children, which Guðrún interprets to mean his sons will die. She sends her brothers a runic message warning them about Atli, but the messenger Vingi alters it, inviting her brothers to come to Atli's hall. Hǫgni's wife
Kostbera Kostbera is the wife of the mythical Norse hero Hogni. She is mentioned in Atlamál ''Atlamál in grǿnlenzku'' (''The Greenlandic Lay of List of names of Thor, Atli'') is one of the heroic poems of the ''Poetic Edda''. It relates the same bas ...
sees the message is false and tells him. She tells her dream to Hǫgni, in which she predicts the treachery of Atli and Hǫgni's death, but he doesn't believe her. Gunnar's wife Glaumvor also has symbolic dreams predicting Gunnar's betrayal by Atli and his death, but he eventually gives up trying to interpret them differently and simply concedes he will probably have a short life. Gunnar and Hǫgni go with Vingi to Atli. Vingi reveals he betrayed them, and Gunnar and Hǫgni kill him with their axe handles. When they arrive, Atli says he wants Sigurd's gold and will avenge Sigurd by killing his brothers-in-law. Guðrún tries to stop the fighting, but then puts on armor, picks up a sword, and fights with her brothers. Many of Atli's champions are killed. Of their army, only Gunnar and Hǫgni survive and are captured. Hǫgni's heart is cut out and shown to Gunnar. Gunnar is placed in a
snake pit A snake pit is, in a literal sense, a hole filled with snakes. In idiomatic speech, "snake pits" are places of horror, torture and death in European legends and fairy tales. The Viking warlord Ragnar Lodbrok is said to have been thrown into a sn ...
, but Guðrún brings him a harp which he plays with his toes. All the snakes fall asleep except one, which bites his heart and kills him. Guðrún and Atli hold a funeral feast. Later, Guðrún kills Atli's two sons and gives their blood and hearts to Atli to eat and drink. Atli says she deserves to be killed. Hǫgni's son
Niflung The term Nibelung (German) or Niflungr (Old Norse) is a personal or clan name with several competing and contradictory uses in Germanic heroic legend. It has an unclear etymology, but is often connected to the root ''nebel'', meaning mist. The te ...
wants to avenge his father, so he and Guðrún stab Atli while he is asleep. After he dies, Guðrún sets the hall on fire and all Atli's retainers die while fighting each other in panic.


Guðrún's last marriage

Guðrún and Sigurd's daughter is Svanhild, radiantly beautiful. Guðrún goes to the sea to drown herself after killing Atli, but she gets swept away to the court of King Jonakr, who marries her. They have
three sons ''Three Sons'' is a 1939 American drama film directed by Jack Hively using a screenplay by John Twist, based on the novel, ''Sweepings'' by Lester Cohen. Produced and distributed by RKO Radio Pictures, and released on October 13, 1939, it is a re ...
: Hamdir, Sorli, and Erp. Svanhild is raised with them. King Jormunrek wants to marry Svanhild, but Bikki convinces Jormunrek's son
Randver Randvér or Randver was a legendary Danish king. In Nordic legends, according to '' Sögubrot'' and the '' Lay of Hyndla'', he was the son of Ráðbarðr the king of Garðaríki and Auðr the Deep-Minded, the daughter of the Danish-Swedish ru ...
that he would be a better match for her than his father, so he and Svanhild marry. Upon Bikki's advice, Jormunrek hangs Randver and has horses trample Svanhild to death. Guðrún encourages her sons to kill Jormunrek and avenge Svanhild. Her sons ask Erp if he will help them kill Jormunrek, but he gives an ambivalent answer they misunderstand as arrogance, so they kill him, coming to regret it afterwards. They meet Jormunrek and cut off his hands and feet, but Erp would have cut off Jormunrek's head, which would have kept Jormunrek from calling for his
housecarl A housecarl ( on, húskarl; oe, huscarl) was a non- servile manservant or household bodyguard in medieval Northern Europe. The institution originated amongst the Norsemen of Scandinavia, and was brought to Anglo-Saxon England by the Danish con ...
s. The housecarls are unable to kill Guðrún's sons with sharp weapons. Odin then appears as an old one-eyed man and advises Jormunrek's housecarls to have the avengers killed with stones, which they do.


Themes


Odin and the supernatural

Throughout the saga, elements of the supernatural are interwoven into the narrative. One recurring theme is the periodic appearance of
Odin Odin (; from non, Óðinn, ) is a widely revered Æsir, god in Germanic paganism. Norse mythology, the source of most surviving information about him, associates him with wisdom, healing, death, royalty, the gallows, knowledge, war, battle, v ...
, the foremost among Norse deities, associated with "war, wisdom, ecstasy, and poetry". He is typically depicted as a mysterious, hooded old man with one eye. Odin appears a number of times to assist characters with his magic and powers. At the start of the saga, he guides his son
Sigi In the Völsung cycle, Sigi is the ancestor of the Völsung lineage. In the ''Völsunga saga'', he is said to be one of the sons of Odin. He is also listed among Odin's sons in the '' Nafnaþulur''. He has a son called Rerir. He was outlawed for ...
out of the underworld. He also sends a wish maiden to Sigi's son
Rerir In ''Völsunga saga'', Rerir, the son of Sigi, succeeds his murdered father and avenges his death. He rules in Hunaland and becomes a powerful ruler. Rerir's son is Völsung. Rerir and his wife were unable to have children until the goddess Fri ...
with an enchanted apple that finally allowed Rerir and his wife to have a child. Later, he appears as an old, one-eyed stranger and sticks his sword into the tree
Barnstokkr In Norse mythology, Barnstokkr (Old Norse, literally "child- trunk"Byock (1990:113).) is a tree that stands in the center of King Völsung's hall. Barnstokkr is attested in chapters 2 and 3 of the ''Völsunga saga'', written in the 13th century ...
during a feast at the palace of King
Völsung In Norse mythology, Völsung ( non, Vǫlsungr ) was the son of Rerir and the eponymous ancestor of the ill-fated Völsung clan (), which includes the well known Norse hero Sigurð. He was murdered by the Geatish king Siggeir and later avenged b ...
, declaring that "he who draws this sword out of the trunk shall receive it from me as a gift, and he himself shall prove that he has never carried a better sword than this one", which King Völsung's son
Sigmund In Norse mythology, Sigmund ( non, Sigmundr , ang, Sigemund) is a hero whose story is told in the Völsunga saga. He and his sister, Signý, are the children of Völsung and his wife Hljod. Sigmund is best known as the father of Sigurð the d ...
does. Odin also directly intervenes during key points in the narrative. During a battle, Odin, again in the guise of an old, one-eyed man, breaks Sigmund's sword, turning the tide of the battle and ultimately leading to his death. He also stabs Brynhild with a sleeping thorn and curses her never to win another battle as an act of revenge for killing Hjalmgunnar, a rival king to whom Odin had promised victory.


The ring Andvaranaut

In the latter half of the saga the ring
Andvaranaut In Norse mythology, Andvaranaut ( 12th c. Old Norse: , "Andvari's Gift"), first owned by Andvari, is a magic ring that could help with finding sources of gold. The mischievous god Loki stole Andvari's treasure and the ring. In revenge, Andvari ...
serves as a connection and explanation for the characters' troubles. Loki killed
Ótr In Norse mythology, Ótr (Old Norse: ; alternately: Ott, Oter, Otr, Ottar, Ottarr, Otter) is a dwarf. He is the son of the king Hreidmar and the brother of Fafnir and Regin. According to the Prose Edda, Ótr could change into any form and used ...
, the son of Hreidmar. As compensation for Ótr's death, Loki coerced a dwarf named
Andvari In Norse mythology, Andvari ( 12th c. Old Norse: ; "careful one") is a dwarf who lives underneath a waterfall and has the power to change himself into a pike (gedda) at will. Andvari had a magical ring Andvaranaut, which helped him become w ...
into repaying the debt with gold. Andvari tried to hold onto one gold ring and when Loki forced him to give it up Andvari cursed the ring, saying, "This ring... and indeed the entire treasure, will be the death of whoever owns it." This plays out as one character after another is killed soon after they receive the ring. Ótr's brother
Fáfnir In Nordic and wider Germanic mythology, Fáfnir (Old Norse pronunciation: fɑːvnər is a mighty dwarf who is the son of Hreidmar, and brother of Regin and Ótr. Once cursed by Andvari's ring and gold, Fafnir slays his father out of greed ...
killed his father in order to get the ring and then turned into a dragon to protect it. Sigurd then kills Fáfnir, taking the ring and giving it to Brynhild. The ring is then brought into Queen Grimhild's family after her children marry Sigurd and Brynhild. The story of the Andvaranaut is thought to have been one of the texts that inspired J.R.R Tolkien's ''
The Lord of the Rings ''The Lord of the Rings'' is an epic high-fantasy novel by English author and scholar J. R. R. Tolkien. Set in Middle-earth, intended to be Earth at some time in the distant past, the story began as a sequel to Tolkien's 1937 children's boo ...
''.


Adaptations and related works

The
Middle High German Middle High German (MHG; german: Mittelhochdeutsch (Mhd.)) is the term for the form of German spoken in the High Middle Ages. It is conventionally dated between 1050 and 1350, developing from Old High German and into Early New High German. Hig ...
epic poem the ''
Nibelungenlied The ( gmh, Der Nibelunge liet or ), translated as ''The Song of the Nibelungs'', is an epic poem written around 1200 in Middle High German. Its anonymous poet was likely from the region of Passau. The is based on an oral tradition of Germani ...
'' is related in content. The relative historical accuracy and origin of both works are a subject of academic research—however, whilst traditionally the stories from the ''
Poetic Edda The ''Poetic Edda'' is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems, which is distinct from the ''Prose Edda'' written by Snorri Sturluson. Several versions exist, all primarily of text from the Icelandic med ...
'' and ''Völsunga saga'' were assumed to contain an earlier or "more original" version, the actual development of the different texts is more complex—for more details see Nibelungenlied § Origins. Among the more notable adaptations of this text are
Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most op ...
's tetralogy of music dramas ''
Der Ring des Nibelungen (''The Ring of the Nibelung''), WWV 86, is a cycle of four German-language epic music dramas composed by Richard Wagner. The works are based loosely on characters from Germanic heroic legend, namely Norse legendary sagas and the '' Nibe ...
'',
Ernest Reyer Louis Étienne Ernest Reyer (1 December 1823 – 15 January 1909) was a French opera composer and music critic. Biography Ernest Reyer was born in Marseille. His father, a notary, did not want his son to take up a career in music. However, he ...
's opera ''
Sigurd Sigurd ( non, Sigurðr ) or Siegfried (Middle High German: ''Sîvrit'') is a legendary hero of Germanic heroic legend, who killed a dragon and was later murdered. It is possible he was inspired by one or more figures from the Frankish Merovin ...
'',
Henrik Ibsen Henrik Johan Ibsen (; ; 20 March 1828 – 23 May 1906) was a Norwegian playwright and theatre director. As one of the founders of modernism in theatre, Ibsen is often referred to as "the father of realism" and one of the most influential playw ...
's ''
The Vikings at Helgeland ''The Vikings at Helgeland'' (''Hærmændene paa Helgeland'') is Henrik Ibsen's seventh play. It was written during 1857 and first performed at Christiania Norske Theater in Oslo on 24 November 1858. The plot takes place during the time of Erik B ...
'', and
William Morris William Morris (24 March 1834 – 3 October 1896) was a British textile designer, poet, artist, novelist, architectural conservationist, printer, translator and socialist activist associated with the British Arts and Crafts Movement. He ...
's epic poem ''
The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs ''The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs'' (1876) is an epic poem of over 10,000 lines by William Morris that tells the tragic story, drawn from the Volsunga Saga and the Elder Edda, of the Norse hero Sigmund, his son ...
''.
J. R. R. Tolkien John Ronald Reuel Tolkien (, ; 3 January 1892 – 2 September 1973) was an English writer and philologist. He was the author of the high fantasy works ''The Hobbit'' and ''The Lord of the Rings''. From 1925 to 1945, Tolkien was the Rawlins ...
's ''
The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún ''The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún'' is a book containing two narrative poems and related texts composed by English writer J. R. R. Tolkien. It was published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt and HarperCollins on 5 May 2009. The two poems that mak ...
'' is derived instead from the Völsung poems in the ''
Elder Edda The ''Poetic Edda'' is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems, which is distinct from the ''Prose Edda'' written by Snorri Sturluson. Several versions exist, all primarily of text from the Icelandic med ...
'', as Tolkien thought the author of the saga had made a jumble of things. The saga is also one inspiration for Þráinn Bertelsson's satirical crime novel '' Valkyrjur'' (Reykjavík: JPV, 2005).
Melvin Burgess Melvin Burgess (born 25 April 1954) is a British writer of children's fiction. He became famous in 1996 with the publication of ''Junk (novel), Junk'', about heroin-addicted teenagers on the streets of Bristol. In Britain, ''Junk'' became one o ...
similarly drew inspiration from the saga in his novel '' Bloodtide'' (1999) and its sequel ''Bloodsong'' (2007).


Editions and translations


Editions

*
Völsunga saga
', in ''Fornaldarsögur norðurlanda'', ed. by Guðni Jónsson and Bjarni Vilhjálmsson, 3 vols (Reyjkjavík: Bókaútgáfan Forni, 1943–44) * , with Icelandic text * , English translation with Norse transcription from manuscript Nks 1824 b, 4°


English translations

* , literal translation
e-text
* * , with Icelandic text * * * , English translation with Norse transcription from manuscript Nks 1824 b, 4° *


Other translations

* , Norse text with translations by: A. Bugge (Norwegian, 1910); Winkel Horn (Danish, 1876), Nils Fredrik Sander (Swedish, 1893)


Literary retellings

* , literary adaption **Some sections edited into prose in: *Numerous retellings of aspects of the tales can be found, from this and other sources on the Volsungs—some have been adapted for children, such as the ''"Story of Sigurd"'' in
Andrew Lang Andrew Lang (31 March 1844 – 20 July 1912) was a Scottish poet, novelist, literary critic, and contributor to the field of anthropology. He is best known as a collector of folk and fairy tales. The Andrew Lang lectures at the University o ...
's ''"The Red Fairy Book"''


References


Additional literature

*


External links

* *
Völsunga Saga (Old Norse and Modern English Translation)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Volsungasaga 13th-century poems Legendary sagas Sources of Norse mythology Nibelung tradition *