The vulva (plural: vulvas or vulvae; derived from Latin for wrapper or covering) consists of the external
female sex organs. The vulva includes the
mons pubis
In human anatomy, and in mammals in general, the ''mons pubis'' or pubic mound (also known simply as the mons, and known specifically in females as the ''mons Venus'' or ''mons veneris'') is a rounded mass of fatty tissue found over the pubic sym ...
(or mons veneris),
labia majora,
labia minora
The labia minora (Latin for 'smaller lips', singular: ''labium minus'', 'smaller lip'), also known as the inner labia, inner lips, vaginal lips or nymphae are two flaps of skin on either side of the human vaginal opening in the vulva, situated b ...
,
clitoris,
vestibular bulbs
In female anatomy, the vestibular bulbs, bulbs of the vestibule or clitoral bulbs are two elongated masses of erectile tissue typically described as being situated on either side of the vaginal opening. They are united to each other in front by ...
,
vulval vestibule,
urinary meatus, the
vaginal opening,
hymen
The hymen is a thin piece of mucosal tissue that surrounds or partially covers the external vaginal opening. It forms part of the vulva, or external genitalia, and is similar in structure to the vagina.
In children, a common appearance of the ...
, and
Bartholin's and
Skene's vestibular
glands. The urinary meatus is also included as it opens into the vulval vestibule. Other features of the vulva include the pudendal cleft,
sebaceous glands, the
urogenital triangle
The urogenital triangle is the anterior part of the perineum. In female mammals, it contains the vagina and associated parts of the internal genitalia.
Structure
The urogenital triangle is the area bound by a triangle with one vertex at the pub ...
(anterior part of the
perineum
The perineum in humans is the space between the anus and scrotum in the male, or between the anus and the vulva in the female. The perineum is the region of the body between the pubic symphysis (pubic arch) and the coccyx (tail bone), includi ...
), and
pubic hair. The vulva includes the entrance to the
vagina, which leads to the
uterus
The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more embryos until birth. The ...
, and provides a double layer of protection for this by the folds of the outer and inner
labia
The labia are part of the female genitalia; they are the major externally visible portions of the vulva. In humans, there are two pairs of labia: the ''labia majora'' (or the outer labia) are larger and thicker, while the '' labia minora'' are fo ...
.
Pelvic floor muscles support the structures of the vulva. Other muscles of the urogenital triangle also give support.
Blood supply to the vulva comes from the three
pudendal arteries
The pudendal arteries are a group of arteries which supply many of the muscles and organs of the pelvic cavity. The arteries include the internal pudendal artery, the superficial external pudendal artery, and the deep external pudendal artery.
...
. The
internal pudendal veins
The internal pudendal veins (internal pudic veins) are a set of veins in the pelvis. They are the venae comitantes of the internal pudendal artery. Internal pudendal veins are enclosed by pudendal canal, with internal pudendal artery and pudenda ...
give drainage.
Afferent lymph vessels carry
lymph away from the vulva to the
inguinal lymph nodes
Inguinal lymph nodes are lymph nodes in the human groin. Located in the femoral triangle of the inguinal region, they are grouped into superficial and deep lymph nodes. The superficial have three divisions: the superomedial, superolateral, and i ...
. The nerves that supply the vulva are the
pudendal nerve
The pudendal nerve is the main nerve of the perineum. It carries sensation from the external genitalia of both sexes and the skin around the anus and perineum, as well as the motor supply to various pelvic muscles, including the male or fem ...
,
perineal nerve,
ilioinguinal nerve
The ilioinguinal nerve is a branch of the first lumbar nerve (L1). It separates from the first lumbar nerve along with the larger iliohypogastric nerve. It emerges from the lateral border of the psoas major just inferior to the iliohypogastric, a ...
and their branches. Blood and nerve supply to the vulva contribute to the stages of
sexual arousal that are helpful in the
reproduction process.
Following the development of the vulva, changes take place at birth,
childhood
A child (plural, : children) is a human being between the stages of childbirth, birth and puberty, or between the Development of the human body, developmental period of infancy and puberty. The legal definition of ''child'' generally refers ...
,
puberty,
menopause and post-menopause. There is a great deal of variation in the appearance of the vulva, particularly in relation to the labia minora. The vulva can be affected by many disorders which may often result in
irritation.
Vulvovaginal health measures can prevent many of these. Other disorders include a number of infections and
cancers
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal bl ...
. There are several vulval restorative surgeries known as
genitoplasties, and some of these are also used as
cosmetic surgery procedures.
Different cultures have held different views of the vulva. Some ancient religions and societies have worshipped the vulva and revered the female as a goddess. Major traditions in
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
continue this. In Western societies, there has been a largely negative attitude typified by the medical terminology of , meaning parts to be ashamed of. There has been an artistic reaction to this in various attempts to bring about a more positive and natural outlook, such as work from British, American, and Japanese artists. While the vagina is a separate part of the anatomy, it has often been used synonymously with vulva.
Structure
The main structures of the vulva are: the
mons pubis
In human anatomy, and in mammals in general, the ''mons pubis'' or pubic mound (also known simply as the mons, and known specifically in females as the ''mons Venus'' or ''mons veneris'') is a rounded mass of fatty tissue found over the pubic sym ...
, the
labia majora and
labia minora
The labia minora (Latin for 'smaller lips', singular: ''labium minus'', 'smaller lip'), also known as the inner labia, inner lips, vaginal lips or nymphae are two flaps of skin on either side of the human vaginal opening in the vulva, situated b ...
, the external parts of the
clitoris – the
clitoral hood
In the female human body, the clitoral hood (also called preputium clitoridis and clitoral prepuce) is a fold of skin that surrounds and protects the glans of the clitoris; it also covers the external shaft of the clitoris, develops as part of th ...
and the
glans
The glans (, plural "glandes" ; from the Latin word for "acorn") is a vascular structure located at the tip of the penis in male mammals or a homologous genital structure of the clitoris in female mammals.
Structure
The exterior structure ...
, the
urinary meatus, the
vaginal opening and
hymen
The hymen is a thin piece of mucosal tissue that surrounds or partially covers the external vaginal opening. It forms part of the vulva, or external genitalia, and is similar in structure to the vagina.
In children, a common appearance of the ...
, and
Bartholin's and
Skene's vestibular glands.
Other features include the pudendal cleft,
pubic hair,
sebaceous glands, the
vulval vestibule, and the
urogenital triangle
The urogenital triangle is the anterior part of the perineum. In female mammals, it contains the vagina and associated parts of the internal genitalia.
Structure
The urogenital triangle is the area bound by a triangle with one vertex at the pub ...
.
Mons pubis
The mons pubis is the soft mound of
fatty tissue
Adipose tissue, body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. In addition to adipocytes, adipose tissue contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, vascular e ...
at the front of the vulva, in the pubic region covering the
pubic bone
In vertebrates, the pubic region ( la, pubis) is the most forward-facing ( ventral and anterior) of the three main regions making up the coxal bone. The left and right pubic regions are each made up of three sections, a superior ramus, inferior ...
.
is Latin for "pubic mound" and is present in both
sexes to act as a cushion during
sexual intercourse, and is more pronounced in the female.
The variant term ''mons veneris'' ('mound of Venus') is used specifically for females.
The lower part of the mons pubis is divided by a fissure – the pudendal cleft – which separates the mons pubis into the labia majora. After puberty, the clitoral hood and the labia minora can protrude into the pudendal cleft in a variable degree.
The mons and labia majora become covered in
pubic hair at
puberty.
Labia
The labia majora and the labia minora cover the vulval vestibule.
The outer pair of folds, divided by the pudendal cleft, are the labia majora (
New Latin
New Latin (also called Neo-Latin or Modern Latin) is the revival of Literary Latin used in original, scholarly, and scientific works since about 1500. Modern scholarly and technical nomenclature, such as in zoological and botanical taxonomy ...
for "larger lips"). They contain and protect the other structures of the vulva.
The labia majora meet at the front at the mons pubis, and meet posteriorly at the
urogenital triangle
The urogenital triangle is the anterior part of the perineum. In female mammals, it contains the vagina and associated parts of the internal genitalia.
Structure
The urogenital triangle is the area bound by a triangle with one vertex at the pub ...
(the anterior part of the
perineum
The perineum in humans is the space between the anus and scrotum in the male, or between the anus and the vulva in the female. The perineum is the region of the body between the pubic symphysis (pubic arch) and the coccyx (tail bone), includi ...
) between the pudendal cleft and the
anus.
The labia minora are often pink or brownish black, relevant to the person's skin color.
The grooves between the labia majora and labia minora are called the
interlabial sulci
The labia are part of the female genitalia; they are the major externally visible portions of the vulva. In humans, there are two pairs of labia: the ''labia majora'' (or the outer labia) are larger and thicker, while the '' labia minora'' are f ...
, or interlabial folds. The labia minora (smaller lips) are the inner two soft folds, within the labia majora. They have more color than the labia majora
and contain numerous sebaceous glands. They meet posteriorly at the
frenulum of the labia minora, a fold of restrictive tissue. The labia minora meet again at the front of the vulva to form the clitoral hood, also known as the prepuce.
The visible portion of the clitoris is the
clitoral glans
The clitoris ( or ) is a female sex organ present in mammals, ostriches and a limited number of other animals. In humans, the visible portion – the glans – is at the front junction of the labia minora (inner lips), above the ope ...
. Typically, this is roughly the size and shape of a
pea, and can vary in size from about 6 mm to 25 mm.
The size can also vary when it is erect.
The clitoral glans contains as many nerve endings as the much larger
homologous glans penis
In male human anatomy, the glans penis, commonly referred to as the glans, is the bulbous structure at the distal end of the human penis that is the human male's most sensitive erogenous zone and their primary anatomical source of sexual pl ...
in the male, which makes it highly sensitive.
The only known function of the clitoris is to focus sexual feelings.
The
clitoral hood
In the female human body, the clitoral hood (also called preputium clitoridis and clitoral prepuce) is a fold of skin that surrounds and protects the glans of the clitoris; it also covers the external shaft of the clitoris, develops as part of th ...
is a protective fold of skin which varies in shape and size, and it may partially or completely cover the clitoris.
The clitoris is the homologue of the
penis
A penis (plural ''penises'' or ''penes'' () is the primary sexual organ that male animals use to inseminate females (or hermaphrodites) during copulation. Such organs occur in many animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, but males d ...
,
and the clitoral hood is the female equivalent of the male
foreskin
In male human anatomy, the foreskin, also known as the prepuce, is the double-layered fold of skin, mucosal and muscular tissue at the distal end of the human penis that covers the glans and the urinary meatus. The foreskin is attached to the ...
,
and may be partially or completely hidden within the pudendal cleft.
Vestibule
The area between the labia minora where the vaginal opening and the
urinary meatus are located is called the
vulval vestibule, or vestibule of the vagina. The urinary meatus is below the clitoris and just in front of the vaginal opening which is near to the perineum. The term ''introitus'' is more technically correct than "opening", since the vagina is usually collapsed, with the opening closed. The introitus is sometimes partly covered by a membrane called the
hymen
The hymen is a thin piece of mucosal tissue that surrounds or partially covers the external vaginal opening. It forms part of the vulva, or external genitalia, and is similar in structure to the vagina.
In children, a common appearance of the ...
. The hymen will usually rupture during the first episode of vigorous sex, and the blood produced by this rupture has been seen to signify
virginity. However, the hymen may also rupture spontaneously during exercise or be stretched by normal activities such as the use of
tampon
A tampon is a menstrual product designed to absorb blood and vaginal secretions by insertion into the vagina during menstruation. Unlike a pad, it is placed internally, inside of the vaginal canal. Once inserted correctly, a tampon is held in ...
s and
menstrual cup
A menstrual cup is a menstrual hygiene device which is inserted into the vagina during menstruation. Its purpose is to collect menstrual fluid (blood from the uterine lining mixed with other fluids). Menstrual cups are usually made of flexible ...
s, or be so minor as to be unnoticeable, or be absent.
In some rare cases, the hymen may completely cover the vaginal opening, requiring a surgical procedure called a
hymenotomy. On either side of the back part of the vaginal opening are the two greater vestibular glands known as
Bartholin's glands. These glands secrete mucus and a vaginal and vulval lubricant. They are homologous to the
bulbourethral glands in the male.
The lesser vestibular glands known as
Skene's glands, are found on the anterior wall of the vagina. They are
homologues of the male
prostate gland and are also referred to as the female prostate.
Muscles
Pelvic floor muscles help to support the vulvar structures. The voluntary,
pubococcygeus muscle, part of the
levator ani
The levator ani is a broad, thin muscle group, situated on either side of the pelvis. It is formed from three muscle components: the pubococcygeus, the iliococcygeus, and the puborectalis.
It is attached to the inner surface of each side of the ...
muscle partially constricts the vaginal opening.
Other muscles of the
urogenital triangle
The urogenital triangle is the anterior part of the perineum. In female mammals, it contains the vagina and associated parts of the internal genitalia.
Structure
The urogenital triangle is the area bound by a triangle with one vertex at the pub ...
support the vulvar area and they include the
transverse perineal muscles, the
bulbospongiosus, and the
ischiocavernosus
The ischiocavernosus muscle (erectores penis ''or'' erector clitoridis in older texts) is a muscle just below the surface of the perineum, present in both men and women.
Structure
It arises by tendinous and fleshy fibers from the inner surface of ...
muscles.
The bulbospongiosus muscle decreases the vaginal opening.
Their contractions play a role in the vaginal contractions of
orgasm by causing the vestibular bulbs to contract.
Blood, lymph and nerve supply
The tissues of the vulva are highly
vascularised and blood supply is provided by the three
pudendal arteries
The pudendal arteries are a group of arteries which supply many of the muscles and organs of the pelvic cavity. The arteries include the internal pudendal artery, the superficial external pudendal artery, and the deep external pudendal artery.
...
.
Venous return is via the
external
External may refer to:
* External (mathematics), a concept in abstract algebra
* Externality
In economics, an externality or external cost is an indirect cost or benefit to an uninvolved third party that arises as an effect of another party' ...
and
internal pudendal vein
The internal pudendal veins (internal pudic veins) are a set of veins in the pelvis. They are the venae comitantes of the internal pudendal artery. Internal pudendal veins are enclosed by pudendal canal, with internal pudendal artery and pudenda ...
s.
The organs and tissues of the vulva are drained by a chain of
superficial inguinal lymph nodes located along the blood vessels.
The
ilioinguinal nerve
The ilioinguinal nerve is a branch of the first lumbar nerve (L1). It separates from the first lumbar nerve along with the larger iliohypogastric nerve. It emerges from the lateral border of the psoas major just inferior to the iliohypogastric, a ...
originates from the first lumbar nerve and gives branches that include the
anterior labial nerves which supply the skin of the mons pubis and the labia majora.
The
perineal nerve is one of the terminal branches of the
pudendal nerve
The pudendal nerve is the main nerve of the perineum. It carries sensation from the external genitalia of both sexes and the skin around the anus and perineum, as well as the motor supply to various pelvic muscles, including the male or fem ...
and this branches into the
posterior labial nerves to supply the labia.
The pudendal nerve branches include the
dorsal nerve of clitoris
The dorsal nerve of the clitoris is a nerve in females that branches off the pudendal nerve to innervate the clitoris. The nerve is important for female sexual pleasure, and it may play a role in clitoral erections.
It travels from below the infe ...
which gives sensation to the clitoris.
The clitoral glans is seen to be populated by a large number of small nerves, a number that decreases as the tissue changes towards the urethra.
The density of nerves at the glans indicates that it is the center of heightened sensation.
Cavernous nerves from the
uterovaginal plexus supply the erectile tissue of the clitoris.
These are joined underneath the pubic arch by the dorsal nerve of the clitoris.
The pudendal nerve enters the pelvis through the
lesser sciatic foramen
The lesser sciatic foramen is an opening (foramen) between the pelvis and the back of the thigh. The foramen is formed by the sacrotuberous ligament which runs between the sacrum and the ischial tuberosity and the sacrospinous ligament which runs ...
and continues medial to the
internal pudendal artery
The internal pudendal artery is one of the three pudendal arteries. It branches off the internal iliac artery, and provides blood to the external genitalia.
Structure
The internal pudendal artery is the terminal branch of the anterior trunk of ...
. The point where the nerve circles the
ischial spine
The ischial spine is part of the posterior border of the body of the ischium bone of the pelvis. It is a thin and pointed triangular eminence, more or less elongated in different subjects.
Structure
The pudendal nerve travels close to the ischia ...
is the location where a
pudendal block of
local anesthetic can be administered to inhibit sensation to the vulva.
A number of smaller nerves split off from the pudendal nerve. The
deep branch of the perineal nerve supplies the muscles of the perineum and a branch of this supplies the bulb of the vestibule.
Variations
There is a great deal of variation in the appearance of female genitals.
Much of this variation lies in the significant differences in the size, shape, and color of the labia minora. Though called the smaller lips they can often be of considerable size and may protrude outside the vagina or labia majora.
This variation has also been evidenced in a large display of 400 vulval casts called the ''Great Wall of Vagina'' created by
Jamie McCartney
Jamie McCartney (born 1975) is a professional artist working in many disciplines who lives in Brighton, England. Maintaining that the naked body is still a controversial subject, he is most famous for his ten-panelled wall sculpture ''The Great ...
to fill the lack of information of what a normal vulva looks like. The casts taken from a large and varied group of women showed clearly that there is much variation.
Pubic hair also varies in its color, texture, and amount of curl.
Researchers from the Elizabeth Garret Anderson Hospital, London, measured multiple genital dimensions of 50 women between the ages of 18 and 50, with a mean age of 35.6:
[Pdf.]
Development
Prenatal development
In week three of
the development of the embryo,
mesenchyme cells from the
primitive streak migrate around the
cloacal membrane.
Early in the fifth week the cells form two swellings called the cloacal folds.
The cloacal folds meet in front of the cloacal membrane and form a raised area known as the
genital tubercle
A genital tubercle or phallic tubercle is a body of tissue present in the development of the reproductive system. It forms in the ventral, caudal region of mammalian embryos of both sexes, and eventually develops into a primordial phallus. In t ...
.
The urorectal septum fuses with the cloacal membrane to form the
perineum
The perineum in humans is the space between the anus and scrotum in the male, or between the anus and the vulva in the female. The perineum is the region of the body between the pubic symphysis (pubic arch) and the coccyx (tail bone), includi ...
. This division creates two areas one surrounded by the urethral folds and the other by the anal folds.
These areas become the urogenital triangle and the anal triangle.
The area between the vagina and the anus is known as the clinical perineum.
At the same time a pair of swellings on either side of the urethral folds known as the genital swellings develop into the
labioscrotal swellings
The labioscrotal swellings (genital swellings or labioscrotal folds) are paired structures in the human embryo that represent the final stage of development of the caudal end of the external genitals before sexual differentiation. In both males a ...
.
Sexual differentiation takes place, and at the end of week 6 in the female, hormones stimulate further development and the genital tubercle bends and forms the clitoris.
The urethral folds form the labia minora and the labioscrotal swellings form the labia majora. At this time the sexes still cannot be distinguished.
The appearance of the external genitalia is similar in male and female embryos until the twelfth week and even then is difficult to distinguish.
The uterovaginal canal or genital canal, forms in the third month of the development of the urogenital system. The lower part of the canal is blocked off by a plate of tissue, the vaginal plate. This tissue develops and lengthens during the third to fifth months and the lower part of the vaginal canal is formed by a process of desquamation or cell shedding. The end of the vaginal canal is blocked off by an endodermal membrane which separates the opening from the vestibule. In the fifth month the membrane degenerates but leaves a remnant called the hymen.
Organs in the male and female with a shared common ancestry are said to be
homologous.
The clitoral glans is homologous to the male glans penis,
and the
clitoral body and the
clitoral crura are homologous to the
corpora cavernosa of the
penis
A penis (plural ''penises'' or ''penes'' () is the primary sexual organ that male animals use to inseminate females (or hermaphrodites) during copulation. Such organs occur in many animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, but males d ...
.
The labia majora is homologous to the scrotum;
the clitoral hood is homologous to the
foreskin
In male human anatomy, the foreskin, also known as the prepuce, is the double-layered fold of skin, mucosal and muscular tissue at the distal end of the human penis that covers the glans and the urinary meatus. The foreskin is attached to the ...
,
and the labia minora is homologous to the
spongy urethra.
The
vestibular bulbs
In female anatomy, the vestibular bulbs, bulbs of the vestibule or clitoral bulbs are two elongated masses of erectile tissue typically described as being situated on either side of the vaginal opening. They are united to each other in front by ...
beneath the skin of the labia minora are homologous to the
corpus spongiosum
The corpus spongiosum is the mass of spongy tissue surrounding the male urethra within the penis. It is also called the corpus cavernosum urethrae in older texts.
Anatomy
The proximal part of the corpus spongiosum is expanded to form the ure ...
, the tissue of the penis surrounding the urethra, and to the
bulb of the penis
In botany, a bulb is structurally a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf basesBell, A.D. 1997. ''Plant form: an illustrated guide to flowering plant morphology''. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. that function as food storage organs durin ...
.
Bartholin's glands are homologous to the
bulbourethral glands in males.
Childhood
The
newborn
An infant or baby is the very young offspring of human beings. ''Infant'' (from the Latin word ''infans'', meaning 'unable to speak' or 'speechless') is a formal or specialised synonym for the common term ''baby''. The terms may also be used to ...
's vulva may be swollen or enlarged as a result of having been exposed, via the
placenta, to her mother's increased levels of hormones.
The labia majora are closed.
These changes disappear over the first few months.
During childhood before puberty, the lack of estrogen can cause the labia to become sticky and to ultimately join firmly together. This condition is known as
labial fusion and is rarely found after puberty when oestrogen production has increased.
Puberty
Puberty is the onset of the ability to reproduce, and takes place over two to three years, producing a number of changes.
The structures of the vulva become proportionately larger and may become more pronounced.
Pubarche, the first appearance of
pubic hair develops, firstly on the labia majora, and later spreads to the mons pubis, and sometimes to the inner thighs and perineum. Pubic hair is much coarser than other body hair, and is considered a
secondary sex characteristic
Secondary sex characteristics are features that appear during puberty in humans, and at sexual maturity in other animals. These characteristics are particularly evident in the sexually dimorphic phenotypic traits that distinguish the sexes of a s ...
.
Pubarche can occur independently of puberty. ''Premature pubarche'' may sometimes indicate a later
metabolic-
endocrine disorder seen at adolescence. The disorder sometimes known as a ''polyendocrine disorder'' is marked by elevated levels of
androgen
An androgen (from Greek ''andr-'', the stem of the word meaning "man") is any natural or synthetic steroid hormone that regulates the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors. This in ...
,
insulin, and
lipids, and may originate in the fetus. Instead of being seen as a normal variant it is proposed that premature pubarche may be seen as a marker for these later endocrine disorders.
Apocrine sweat glands secrete
sweat
Perspiration, also known as sweating, is the production of fluids secreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals.
Two types of sweat glands can be found in humans: eccrine glands and apocrine glands. The eccrine sweat glands are distrib ...
into the pubic hair follicles. This is broken down by bacteria on the skin and produces an odor, which some consider to act as an attractant
sex pheromone
Sex pheromones are pheromones released by an organism to attract an individual of the same species, encourage them to mate with them, or perform some other function closely related with sexual reproduction.
Sex pheromones specifically focus on ind ...
.
The labia minora may grow more prominent and undergo changes in color.
At puberty the first monthly period known as
menarche marks the onset of
menstruation.
In prepubertal girls the skin of the vulva is thin and delicate, and its neutral pH makes it prone to irritation.
The production of the female sex hormone
estradiol
Estradiol (E2), also spelled oestradiol, is an estrogen steroid hormone and the major female sex hormone. It is involved in the regulation of the estrous and menstrual female reproductive cycles. Estradiol is responsible for the development o ...
(an
estrogen) at puberty, causes the perineal skin to thicken by
keratinising, and this reduces the risk of infection.
Estrogen also causes the laying down of fat in the development of the secondary sex characteristics. This contributes to the maturation of the vulva with increases in the size of the mons pubis, and the labia majora and the enlargement of the labia minora.
Pregnancy
In
pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops (gestation, gestates) inside a woman, woman's uterus (womb). A multiple birth, multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Pregnancy usually occur ...
the vulva and vagina take on a bluish colouring due to venous congestion. This appears between the eighth and twelfth week and continues to darken as the pregnancy continues.
Estrogen is produced in large quantities during pregnancy and this causes the external genitals to become enlarged. The vaginal opening and the vagina are also enlarged.
After
childbirth
Childbirth, also known as labour and delivery, is the ending of pregnancy where one or more babies exits the internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section. In 2019, there were about 140.11 million births glob ...
a vaginal discharge known as
lochia
In the field of obstetrics, lochia is the vaginal discharge after giving birth, containing blood, mucus, and uterine tissue. Lochia discharge typically continues for four to eight weeks after childbirth, a time known as the postpartum period or pue ...
is produced and continues for about ten days.
Menopause
During
menopause, hormone levels decrease, which causes changes in the vulva known as
vulvovaginal atrophy.
The decreased estrogen affects the mons, the labia, and the vaginal opening and can cause pale, itchy, and sore skin.
Other visible changes are a thinning of the pubic hair, a loss of fat from the labia majora, a thinning of the labia minora, and a narrowing of the vaginal opening. This condition has been renamed by some bodies as the ''genitourinary syndrome of menopause'' as a more comprehensive term.
Function and physiology
The vulva has a major role to play in the reproductive system. It provides entry to, and protection for the uterus, and the right conditions in terms of warmth and moisture that aids in its sexual and reproductive functions. The external organs of the vulva are richly innervated and provide pleasure when properly stimulated. The mons pubis provides cushioning against the pubic bone during
intercourse.
A number of different secretions are associated with the vulva, including
urine (from the urethral opening),
sweat
Perspiration, also known as sweating, is the production of fluids secreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals.
Two types of sweat glands can be found in humans: eccrine glands and apocrine glands. The eccrine sweat glands are distrib ...
(from the apocrine glands),
menses
Menstruation (also known as a period, among other colloquial terms) is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The menstrual cycle is characterized by the rise and fall of horm ...
(leaving from the vagina),
sebum (from the
sebaceous glands), alkaline fluid (from the Bartholin's glands),
mucus (from the
Skene's glands), vaginal lubrication from the
vaginal wall and
smegma.
Smegma is a white substance formed from a combination of dead cells, skin oils, moisture and naturally occurring
bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometr ...
, that forms in the genitalia. In females this thickened secretion collects around the clitoris and labial folds. It can cause discomfort during sexual activity as it can cause the clitoral glans to stick to the hood, and is easily removed by bathing.
Aliphatic acids known as
copulins are also secreted in the vagina.
These are believed to act as
pheromone
A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavio ...
s. Their
fatty acid composition, and consequently their
odor changes in relation to the stages of the
menstrual cycle.
Sexual arousal
The clitoris and the labia minora are both
erogenous areas in the vulva. Local stimulation can involve the clitoris, vagina and other perineal regions. The clitoris is the human female's most sensitive erogenous zone and generally the primary anatomical source of human female sexual pleasure.
Sexual stimulation of the clitoris (by a number of means) can result in widespread
sexual arousal and, if maintained, can result in
orgasm. Stimulation to orgasm is optimally achieved by a massaging sensation.
Sexual arousal results in a number of physical changes in the vulva. During arousal
vaginal lubrication increases. Vulva tissue is highly
vascularised; arterioles dilate in response to sexual arousal and the smaller veins will compress after arousal,
so that the clitoris and labia minora increase in size. Increased vasocongestion
Vasocongestion, vascular congestion or vascular engorgement is the swelling of bodily tissues caused by increased vascular blood flow and a localized increase in blood pressure. Typical causes of vasocongestion in humans includes menstruation, sexu ...
in the vagina causes it to swell, decreasing the size of the vaginal opening by about 30%. The clitoris becomes increasingly erect, and the glans moves towards the pubic bone
In vertebrates, the pubic region ( la, pubis) is the most forward-facing ( ventral and anterior) of the three main regions making up the coxal bone. The left and right pubic regions are each made up of three sections, a superior ramus, inferior ...
, becoming concealed by the hood. The labia minora increase considerably in thickness. The labia minora sometimes change considerably in color, going from pink to red in lighter skinned women who have not borne a child, or red to dark red in those that have. Immediately prior to an orgasm, the clitoris becomes exceptionally engorged, causing the glans
The glans (, plural "glandes" ; from the Latin word for "acorn") is a vascular structure located at the tip of the penis in male mammals or a homologous genital structure of the clitoris in female mammals.
Structure
The exterior structure ...
to appear to retract into the clitoral hood. Rhythmic muscle contractions occur in the outer third of the vagina, as well as the uterus and anus. Contractions become less intense and more randomly spaced as the orgasm continues. The number of contractions that accompany an orgasm vary depending on its intensity. An orgasm may be accompanied by female ejaculation, causing liquid from either the Skene's gland or bladder to be expelled through the urethra. The pooled blood begins to dissipate, although at a much slower rate if an orgasm has not occurred. The vagina and vaginal opening return to their normal relaxed state, and the rest of the vulva returns to its normal size, position and color.
Distance between vagina and clitoral glans
The distance of the frenula clitoridis at the clitoral glans from the urinary meatus located in the vaginal opening, the so-called CUMD (clitoral-urinary meatus distance), is measured.
In the 1920s, Marie Bonaparte
Princess Marie Bonaparte (2 July 1882 – 21 September 1962), known as Princess George of Greece and Denmark upon her marriage, was a French author and psychoanalyst, closely linked with Sigmund Freud. Her wealth contributed to the popularity o ...
conducted surveys among women to find out whether they get an orgasm during coitus
Sexual intercourse (or coitus or copulation) is a sexual activity typically involving the insertion and thrusting of the penis into the vagina for sexual pleasure or reproduction.Sexual intercourse most commonly means penile–vaginal penetr ...
. The causes of lack of sexual arousal were known to be aversion or psychological inhibitions. Among the test subjects, there were women who, with a man they loved and desired, "felt the greatest pleasure at certain tender touches", but were nevertheless not sufficiently aroused during coitus. Bonaparte examined the distance between the clitoris and the vagina in 200 women. In 69% of the women, the CUMD was 1.25 to 2.25 cm, most of whom experienced the sexual act as satisfying. In 10% of the women, the CUMD was 2.5 cm, 21% measured 2.75 to 3.5 cm. All the women with a large gap stated that they did not experience satisfying pleasure from penile penetration, although some were very sensitive to "precise stroking by the man".
Bonaparte concluded from this an anatomical causal connection between a large CUMD and "vaginal frigidity" explaining why only women with the clitoral glans close to the vagina (so that it is continuously touched by the penis) were able to experience "the highest sexual pleasure" during coitus.
File:Vulva Dettol 3.jpg, Glans clitoridis with small distance to the opening
File:Intercourse Woman on Top 2.jpg, Contact of the clitoral glans with the penis with small CUMD
File:Vulva - CUMD 2.jpg, Glans clitoridis with medium distance to the opening
File:Penile-vaginal intercourse 3 - painting.png, Lack of contact of the clitoral glans with the penis
File:CUMD - Marie Bonaparte Table 1.png, Classification of the 200 women into CUMD categories
File:CUMD - Marie Bonaparte Table 2.png, Selection of women studied and interviewed
A study by Carney Landis and colleagues in 1940 includes statements to this effect: "On the physical side orgasm capacity is related to clitoris-meatus distance." (Landis et al. 1940).
In 2011, Kim Wallen and Elisabeth Lloyd reviewed Bonaparte's research and confirmed an inverse correlation between CUMD and orgasm through intercourse.
In methods taught since the 1970s by Betty Dodson, the sexual arousal of the woman during vaginal intercourse is to be ensured by the woman independently stimulating her vulva and clitoris continuously with her hands or possibly with a vibrator. According to Kim Wallen, the CUMD says nothing about a happy sex life, rather that a large gap gives couples an opportunity "to be a bit more inventive in how they have sex."
Clinical significance
Irritation
Irritation and itch
Itch (also known as pruritus) is a sensation that causes the desire or reflex to scratch. Itch has resisted many attempts to be classified as any one type of sensory experience. Itch has many similarities to pain, and while both are unpleasant ...
ing of the vulva is called pruritus vulvae. This can be a symptom of many disorders, some of which may be determined by a patch test. The most common cause of irritation is thrush, a fungal infection. Vulvovaginal health measures can help to prevent many disorders including thrush. Infections of the vagina such as vaginosis and of the uterus may produce vaginal discharge
Vaginal discharge is a mixture of liquid, cells, and bacteria that lubricate and protect the vagina. This mixture is constantly produced by the cells of the vagina and cervix, and it exits the body through the vaginal opening. The composition, amou ...
which can be an irritant when it comes into contact with the vulvar tissue. Inflammation as vaginitis, and vulvovaginitis
Vaginitis, also known as vulvovaginitis, is inflammation of the vagina and vulva. Symptoms may include itching, burning, pain, discharge, and a bad smell. Certain types of vaginitis may result in complications during pregnancy.
The three ma ...
can result from this causing irritation and pain. Ingrown hair
Ingrown hair is a condition where a hair curls back or grows sideways into the skin. The condition is most prevalent among people who have coarse or curly hair. It may or may not be accompanied by an infection of the hair follicle (folliculitis) o ...
s resulting from pubic hair shaving can cause folliculitis where the hair follicle becomes infected; or give rise to an inflammatory response known as pseudofolliculitis pubis. A less common cause of irritation is genital lichen planus another inflammatory disorder. A severe variant of this is ''vulvovaginal-gingival syndrome'' which can lead to narrowing of the vagina, or vulva destruction. Many types of infection and other diseases including some cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Possible signs and symptoms include a lump, abnormal b ...
s may cause irritation.
Sexually transmitted infections
Vulvar organs and tissues can become affected by different infectious agents
In biology, a pathogen ( el, πάθος, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of") in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ ...
such as bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometr ...
and virus
A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea.
Since Dmitri Ivanovsk ...
es, or infested by parasites such as lice and mites. Over thirty types of pathogen can be sexually transmitted, and many of these affect the genitals. Most STIs do not produce symptoms or symptoms may be mild and not be indicative of an STI. The practice of safe sex can greatly reduce the risk of infection from many sexually transmitted pathogens. The use of condoms (either male or female condoms) is one of the most effective methods of protection.
Bacterial infections include: chancroid – characterised by genital ulcer
A genital ulcer is an open sore located on the genital area, which includes the vulva, penis, perianal region, or anus. Genital ulcers are most commonly caused by infectious agents (fungal infections, secondary bacterial infections, or sexually t ...
s known as chancres; granuloma inguinale showing as inflammatory granulomas often described as nodules; syphilis –the primary stage classically presents with a single chancre, a firm, painless, non-itchy ulcer, but there may be multiple sores; and gonorrhea
Gonorrhea, colloquially known as the clap, is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by the bacterium ''Neisseria gonorrhoeae''. Infection may involve the genitals, mouth, or rectum. Infected men may experience pain or burning with u ...
that very often presents no symptoms but can result in discharge.
Viral infection
A viral disease (or viral infection) occurs when an organism's body is invaded by pathogenic viruses, and infectious virus particles (virions) attach to and enter susceptible cells.
Structural Characteristics
Basic structural characteristics, ...
s include human papillomavirus infection
Human papillomavirus infection (HPV infection) is caused by a DNA virus from the ''Papillomaviridae'' family. Many HPV infections cause no symptoms and 90% resolve spontaneously within two years. In some cases, an HPV infection persists and res ...
(HPV) – this is the most common STI and has many types. Genital HPV can cause genital wart
Genital warts are a sexually transmitted infection caused by certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV). They are generally pink in color and project out from the surface of the skin. Usually they cause few symptoms, but can occasionally be pai ...
s. There have been links made between HPV and vulvar cancer, though HPV most often causes cervical cancer. Genital herpes
Genital herpes is an infection by the herpes simplex virus (HSV) of the genitals. Most people either have no or mild symptoms and thus do not know they are infected. When symptoms do occur, they typically include small blisters that break open ...
is mostly asymptomatic but can present with small blisters that break open into ulcer
An ulcer is a discontinuity or break in a bodily membrane that impedes normal function of the affected organ. According to Robbins's pathology, "ulcer is the breach of the continuity of skin, epithelium or mucous membrane caused by sloughing o ...
s. HIV/AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus. Following initial infection an individual ...
is mostly transmitted through sexual activity, and the vulva in some cases can be affected by sores.
A highly contagious viral infection is molluscum contagiosum
Molluscum contagiosum (MC), sometimes called water warts, is a viral infection of the skin that results in small raised pink lesions with a dimple in the center. They may become itchy or sore, and occur singularly or in groups. Any area of the sk ...
which is transmissible on close contact and causes water wart
Warts are typically small, rough, hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in other symptoms, except when on the bottom of the feet, where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the ...
s.
Parasitic
Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson ha ...
infections include trichomoniasis, pediculosis pubis
Pediculosis pubis (also known as "crabs" and "pubic lice") is an infestation by the pubic louse, ''Pthirus pubis'', a wingless insect which feeds on blood and lays its eggs (nits) on mainly pubic hair. Less commonly, hair near the anus, armpi ...
, and scabies. Trichomoniasis is transmitted by a parasitic
Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson ha ...
protozoan and is the most common non-viral STI. Most cases are asymptomatic but may present symptoms of irritation and a discharge of unusual odor. Pediculosis pubis
Pediculosis pubis (also known as "crabs" and "pubic lice") is an infestation by the pubic louse, ''Pthirus pubis'', a wingless insect which feeds on blood and lays its eggs (nits) on mainly pubic hair. Less commonly, hair near the anus, armpi ...
commonly called ''crabs'', is a disease caused by the crab louse
The crab louse or pubic louse (''Pthirus pubis'') is an insect that is an obligate ectoparasite of humans, feeding exclusively on blood. The crab louse usually is found in the person's pubic hair. Although the louse cannot jump, it can also liv ...
an ectoparasite. When the pubic hair is infested the irritation produced can be intense. Scabies, also known as the "seven year itch", is caused by another ectoparasite, the mite '' Sarcoptes scabiei'', giving intense irritation.
Cancer
Malignancies can develop in the glabrous and hair-bearing parts of the vulva. Based on the cellular origin and histology, vulvar cancers are classified into squamous cell carcinomas, melanomas, basal cell carcinomas, adenocarcinomas, sarcomas and invasive extramammary Paget's disease. Squamous cell carcinomas represent the most common variant of vulvar cancers and account for approximately 75%. These are usually found in the labia particularly the labia majora. The second most common vulvar cancer is basal cell carcinoma
Basal-cell carcinoma (BCC), also known as basal-cell cancer, is the most common type of skin cancer. It often appears as a painless raised area of skin, which may be shiny with small blood vessels running over it. It may also present as a raise ...
, which rarely spreads to regional lymph nodes or distant organs. The third most common subtype is vulvar melanoma. Studies have shown that vulvar melanomas appear to have a different tumor biology and mutational characteristics compared to skin melanomas, which has a direct impact on the medical treatment of vulvar melanomas.
Signs and symptoms of vulvar cancer can include: itching, or bleeding
Bleeding, hemorrhage, haemorrhage or blood loss, is blood escaping from the circulatory system from damaged blood vessels. Bleeding can occur internally, or externally either through a natural opening such as the mouth, nose, ear, urethra, vag ...
; skin changes including rashes, sores, lumps or ulcers
An ulcer is a discontinuity or break in a bodily membrane that impedes normal function of the affected organ. According to Robbins's pathology, "ulcer is the breach of the continuity of skin, epithelium or mucous membrane caused by sloughing o ...
, and changes in vulvar skin coloration. Pelvic pain might also occur especially during urinating and sex. However, a significant proportion remains asymptomatic in early disease stages, often delaying its diagnosis. As such, 32% of women with vulvar melanoma already have regional involvement or distant metastases at the time of diagnosis, which significantly impacts prognosis.
Surgery (with or without removal of regional lymph nodes) is usually the primary treatment modality. Typically, a wide-local excision is performed, in which the tumor is excised including a safety-margin of healthy tissue to ensure its entire removal, which is confirmed by a pathologist. In more advanced disease, a (partial) vulvectomy may need to be performed in order to remove some or all of the vulva. Advanced-stage melanomas can be treated with checkpoint inhibitors.
Other
Labial fusion, also called ''labial adhesion'', is the fusion of the labia minora. This affects a number of young girls and is not considered unduly problematic. The condition can usually be treated using creams, or it may right itself with the release of hormones at the onset of puberty.
Vulvodynia
Vulvodynia is a chronic pain syndrome that affects the vulvar area and occurs without an identifiable cause. Symptoms typically include a feeling of burning or irritation. It has been established by the ISSVD that for the diagnosis to be made ...
is chronic pain in the vulvar region. There is no single identifiable cause. A subtype of this is vulvar vestibulitis but since this is not thought to be an inflammatory condition it is more usually referred to as ''vestibulodynia''. Vulvar vestibulitis usually affects pre-menopausal women.
A number of skin disorders
Skin is the layer of usually soft, flexible outer tissue covering the body of a vertebrate animal, with three main functions: protection, regulation, and sensation.
Other animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton, have different de ...
such as lichen sclerosus
Lichen sclerosus (LS) is a chronic, inflammatory skin disease of unknown cause which can affect any body part of any person but has a strong preference for the genitals (penis, vulva) and is also known as balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO) when ...
, and lichen simplex chronicus can affect the vulva. Crohn's disease of the vulva is an uncommon form of metastatic
Metastasis is a pathogenic agent's spread from an initial or primary site to a different or secondary site within the host's body; the term is typically used when referring to metastasis by a cancerous tumor. The newly pathological sites, then, ...
Crohn's disease which manifests as a skin condition showing as hypertrophic
Hypertrophy is the increase in the volume of an organ or tissue due to the enlargement of its component cells. It is distinguished from hyperplasia, in which the cells remain approximately the same size but increase in number.Updated by Linda J. ...
lesions or vulvar abscesses. Papillary hidradenomas are nodules that can ulcerate and are mostly found on the skin of the labia or of the interlabial folds. Another more complex ulcerative condition is hidradenitis suppurativa which is characterised by painful cysts that can ulcerate, and recur, and can become chronic lasting for many years. Chronic cases can develop into squamous cell carcinomas. An asymptomatic skin disorder of the vulval vestibule is vestibular papillomatosis which is characterised by fine, pink projections from either the epithelium of the vulva or from the labia minora. Dermatoscopy
Dermatoscopy also known as dermoscopy or epiluminescence microscopy, is the examination of skin lesions with a dermatoscope. It is a tool similar to a camera to allow for inspection of skin lesions unobstructed by skin surface reflections. The d ...
can distinguish this condition from genital warts. A subtype of psoriasis
Psoriasis is a long-lasting, noncontagious autoimmune disease characterized by raised areas of abnormal skin. These areas are red, pink, or purple, dry, itchy, and scaly. Psoriasis varies in severity from small, localized patches to complete ...
, an autoimmune disease, is inverse psoriasis
Inverse psoriasis or flexural psoriasis is a form of psoriasis that selectively, and often exclusively, involves the folds, recesses, and flexor surfaces such as the ears, axillae, groin folds, inframammary folds, navel, intergluteal cleft, pen ...
in which red patches can appear in the skin fold
Skin folds or skinfolds are areas of skin that are naturally folded. Many skin folds are distinct, heritable anatomical features, and may be used for identification of animal species, while others are non-specific and may be produced either by ind ...
s of the labia.
Childbirth
The vulvar region is at risk for trauma during childbirth
Childbirth, also known as labour and delivery, is the ending of pregnancy where one or more babies exits the internal environment of the mother via vaginal delivery or caesarean section. In 2019, there were about 140.11 million births glob ...
.
During childbirth, the vagina and vulva must stretch to accommodate the baby's head (approximately ). This can result in tears known as perineal tears in the vaginal opening, and other structures within the perineum
The perineum in humans is the space between the anus and scrotum in the male, or between the anus and the vulva in the female. The perineum is the region of the body between the pubic symphysis (pubic arch) and the coccyx (tail bone), includi ...
. An episiotomy (a pre-emptive surgical cutting of the perineum) is sometimes performed to facilitate delivery and limit tearing. A tear takes longer to heal than an incision. Tears and incisions may be repaired using sutures that may be layered. Among the methods of hair removal evaluated for pre-surgeries, pubic hair shaving known as ''prepping'', was seen to increase the risk of surgical site infections. No advantages have been demonstrated in the routine shaving of pubic hair prior to childbirth.
Surgery
Genitoplasties are plastic surgeries that can be carried out to repair, restore or alter vulvar tissues, particularly following damage caused by injury or cancer treatment
Cancer can be treated by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormonal therapy, targeted therapy (including immunotherapy such as monoclonal antibody therapy) and synthetic lethality, most commonly as a series of separate treatments (e.g. ...
. These procedures include vaginoplasty
Vaginoplasty is any surgical procedure that results in the construction or reconstruction of the vagina. It is a type of genitoplasty. Pelvic organ prolapse is often treated with one or more surgeries to repair the vagina. Sometimes a vaginopl ...
which can also be performed as a cosmetic surgery. Other cosmetic surgeries to change the appearance of external structures include labiaplasties. Some of these procedures, vaginoplasties and labiaplasties, are also carried out as sex reassignment surgeries.
The use of cosmetic surgeries has been criticized by clinicians. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) is a professional association of physicians specializing in obstetrics and gynecology in the United States. Several Latin American countries are also represented within Districts of ...
recommends that women be informed of the risks of these surgeries. They refer to the lack of data relevant to their safety and effectiveness and to the potential associated risks such as infection, altered sensation, dyspareunia, adhesions
Adhesions are fibrous bands that form between tissues and organs, often as a result of injury during surgery. They may be thought of as internal scar tissue that connects tissues not normally connected.
Pathophysiology
Adhesions form as a natural ...
, and scarring. There is also a percentage of people seeking cosmetic surgery who may be suffering from body dysmorphic disorder
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), occasionally still called dysmorphophobia, is a mental disorder characterized by the obsessive idea that some aspect of one's own body part or appearance is severely flawed and therefore warrants exceptional meas ...
and surgery in these cases can be counterproductive.
Society and culture
Altering the female genitalia
In some cultural practices, particularly in the African Khoikhoi
Khoekhoen (singular Khoekhoe) (or Khoikhoi in the former orthography; formerly also '' Hottentots''"Hottentot, n. and adj." ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2018, www.oed.com/view/Entry/88829. Accessed 13 May 2018. Citing G. S. ...
and Rwanda cultures, the labia minora are purposefully stretched by repeated pulling on them and sometimes by attaching weights. Labia stretching is a recognised, familial cultural practice in parts of Eastern and Southern Africa. This is a desired and encouraged practice by the women (starting at puberty) in order to promote better sexual satisfaction for both parties. The achieved extensions can hang down below the labia majora for up to seven inches. Children in the African diaspora practise this too, so it occurs within immigrant communities in, for example, Britain, where a BBC #REDIRECT BBC #REDIRECT BBC
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...
The girls are subject to familial and social pressure to conform.
In some cultures, including modern Western culture, women have shaved or otherwise
from part or all of the vulva. When high-cut swimsuits became fashionable, women who wished to wear them would remove the hair on either side of their pubic triangles, to avoid exhibiting
.
Other women prefer to retain their vulva hair. The removal of hair from the vulva is a fairly recent phenomenon in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, usually in the form of
, but has been prevalent in many Eastern European and Middle Eastern cultures for centuries, usually due to the idea that it may be more hygienic, or originating in prostitution and pornography.
Hair removal may include all, most, or some of the hair.
leaves a small amount of hair on either side of the labia or a strip directly above and in line with the
called a ''landing strip''.
s. Piercings are usually performed for aesthetic purposes, but some forms like the
might also enhance pleasure during sex. Though they are common in
, intimate piercings are a fairly recent trend in Western society. Other forms of permanent modifications of the vulva for cultural, decorative or aesthetic reasons are
. In September 2007, the
(ACOG) issued a committee opinion on these and other female genital surgeries, including "vaginal rejuvenation", "designer vaginoplasty", "revirgination", and "
amplification". This opinion states that the safety of these procedures has not been documented. The ACOG and the
recommend that women seeking these surgeries need to be informed about the lack of data supporting these procedures and the potential associated risks such as infection, altered sensation,
, and scarring.
With the growing popularity of female cosmetic genital surgeries, the practice increasingly draws criticism from an opposition movement of
. The major point of contention is that heavy advertising for these procedures, in combination with a lack of public education, fosters body insecurities in women with larger labia in spite of the fact that there is normal and pronounced individual variation in the size of labia. The preference for smaller labia is a matter of a fashion fad and is without clinical or functional significance.
The most prevalent form of non-consensual
. This mostly involves the partial or complete removal of genital organs.
Female genital mutilation is carried out in thirty countries in Africa and Asia with more than 200 million girls being affected, and some women (as of 2018).
Nearly all of the procedures are carried out on young girls. The practices are also carried out globally among migrants from these areas. Female genital mutilation is claimed to be mostly carried out for cultural traditional reasons.
for "womb". It derives from the 1540s in referring to the womb and female sexual organs, from the earlier ''volvere'' meaning to turn, roll or revolve, with further derivatives such as used in
(twisted bowel).
The naming of the female (and male) genitals as , meaning parts to be ashamed of, dates from the mid-17th century.
The naming influenced the general perception of the vulva and this is shown in depicted
procedures. The examiner shown in the ''Obstetrical examination'' dated 1822, is adopting the compromise procedure where the woman's genitals cannot be seen.
In 2021, a study in the UK showed that few are able to label the structure of the vulva correctly.
There are many
terms used for the vulva.
in English-speaking cultures. The word has been replaced in normal usage by a few
.
for a pet cat – pussy cat. In North American informal use the term pussy can also refer to a weak or effeminate man, and fanny is a term used for the
.
.
Vagina is often used as a synonym for vulva even though it is a separate part of the anatomy.
Some cultures have long celebrated and even worshipped the vulva. During the
, the goddess of love, sex, and fertility, have survived.
is the divine personification of female genitalia. Vaginal fluid is always described in Sumerian texts as tasting "sweet"
and, in a Sumerian bridal hymn, a young maiden rejoices that her vulva has grown hair.
.
.
is worshipped as the supreme deity.
The yoni is a representation of the female deity and is found in many temples as a focus for
.
.
s are figurative carvings of naked women displaying an exaggerated vulva. They are found in ancient and medieval European contexts. They are displayed on many churches, but their origin and significance is debatable. A main line of thinking is that they were used to ward off
. Another view is that the sheela na gig was a divine assistant in childbirth.
images in particular, but writes also about the recurring image worldwide. Through hundreds of photographs, she demonstrates that the image of a female displaying her vulva is not specific to European religious art or architecture, but that similar images are found in the visual arts and in mythical narratives of
ines parting their thighs to reveal what she calls, "sacred powers." Her theory is that "the image is so rooted in our psyches that it seems as if the icon is the original cosmological center of the human imagination."
painting of a vulva that only became exhibited many years later.
. The woman used as the model for the painting was probably Halil's lover
. However another potential model is
has focused much of her work on painting and modelling vulvas and vulva-themed works. She has used molds to create
s – three-dimensional models of her vulva with the hope of demystifying the female genitals.
, portrays a symbolic history of famous women. The dinner plates each depict an elaborate vulval form and they are arranged in a triangular vulva shape.
who used the casts of four hundred vulvas to create ''The Great Wall of Vagina'' in 2011. The vagina casts are life-size. Explanations written by the project's sexual health adviser accompany these. The purpose of the artist was to "address some of the stigmas and misconceptions that are commonplace".
by Heather Corinna (illustrations; no explicit photos)
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