The ''Volksraad'' (People's Council) an advisory, and later semi-legislative institution for the
Dutch East Indies, was provided for by law in 1916 but was only established with the actual installation of the Council in 1918. It was a hesitant and slow attempt at democratisation of the Dutch East Indies as part of the
"ethical policy" adopted by the Dutch government. The power of the ''Volksraad'' was limited as it only had advisory powers. Although part of the council was elected only a small proportion of the population had voting rights.
Initially the ''Volksraad'' had 39 members, eventually rising to 60. It was reconstituted every four years. The members were partly elected, partly appointed by the colonial administration.
Background
The idea of a representative body in the Dutch East Indies arose partly became of the
Ethical Policy
The Dutch Ethical Policy ( nl, Ethische Politiek) was the official policy of the colonial government of the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia) during the four decades from 1901 until the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, Japan ...
implemented by the Dutch government as part of a move away from simple exploration of the colony towards expressing concern for the Indonesian people and their wellbeing. During the
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, the Dutch became worried about a possible Japanese threat to the East Indies. Given the small size of the local Dutch forces available for defense, the colonial authorities asked Indonesian leaders if Indonesians would be willing to be drafted into military service. The Indonesian
Budi Utomo
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political society supported idea of a militia, but the
Sarekat Islam
Sarekat Islam or Syarikat Islam ( 'Islamic Association' or 'Islamic Union'; SI) was an Indonesian socio-political organization founded at the beginning of the 20th Century during the Dutch colonial era. Initially, SI served as a cooperative of ...
political organization rejected this idea, refusing to fight for a colony in which they had no legislative representation. Budi Utomo came round to this view by 1915. In 1916-1917 a group comprising delegates from Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and the Union of Regents as well as from regions of Java travelled around the Netherlands campaigning for representation, and pleaded their case with
Queen Wilhelmina
Wilhelmina (; Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria; 31 August 1880 – 28 November 1962) was Queen of the Netherlands from 1890 until her abdication in 1948. She reigned for nearly 58 years, longer than any other Dutch monarch. Her reign saw World Wa ...
. Although the Dutch refused to consider any power sharing, they realized that limited concessions might be necessary, and on 16 December 1916, following a proposal from Colonial Affairs Minister
Thomas Bastiaan Pleyte
Thomas Bastiaan Pleyte (23 October 1864 in Leiden – 25 March 1926 in The Hague) was a Dutch politician.
Pleyte was Minister of the Colonies in the cabinet of Pieter Cort van der Linden. He became known as a liberal minister who founded the ...
, a ''Wet'' (Dutch law) was passed establishing an advisory body without any legislative powers, the ''Volksraad''.
In early 1918, the ''Volksraad'' election results were announced.
Abdul Muis
Abdul Muis (also spelt Abdoel Moeis; 1886 – 17 July 1959), was an Indonesian writer, journalist and nationalist. He advocated for Indonesia's independence from the Netherlands. He was the first person to be named a national hero by President S ...
(Sarekat Islam) and
Abdoel Rivai
Abdoel Rivai (Palembayan, Agam, West Sumatra, August 13, 1871 - Bandung, West Java, October 16, 1937) (EYD: Abdul Rivai) was an Indonesian physician, journalist, and supporter of Indonesian independence.
Personal life
Rivai was of Minangkabau d ...
(
Insulinde) were elected, but most of the other elected Indonesia members were government officials, not party members.
Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies Johan Paul, Count van Limburg Stirum was unhappy with this outcome as he wanted more radical Indonesians in the ''Volksraad'' so they could be tamed. He used his authority to appoint other members including
Tjokroaminoto (Sarekat Islam) and
Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo
Cipto Mangunkusumo or Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo (4 March 1886 in Pecangakan, Ambarawa, Semarang – 8 March 1943 in Batavia) was a prominent Indonesian independence leader and Sukarno's political mentor. Together with Ernest Douwes Dekker and Soewar ...
(Insulinde).
Formation and actions
The ''Volksraad'' was officially founded in
Weltevreden,
Batavia,
Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's mos ...
, on 18 May 1918 by the
Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies,
Johan Paul, Count van Limburg Stirum (1873–1948). The building used for the ''Volksraad'', built by the Dutch in 1830, is on Jalan Pejambon in Central Jakarta. In 1945 it was used for meetings of the
, and as future president
Sukarno gave his famous
Pancasila speech there, it is now known as the
Pancasila Building ( id, Gedung Pancasila).
There were two short ''Volksraad'' sessions every year. In its first session, which opened on 21 May 1918, J.C Koningenberger was elected chairman for 1918–1919. A motion to send a "loyal cable" to the
Queen of the Netherlands was rejected, while another allowing debates to be conducted in
Malay was passed. In the second session that year, in November, the 'Radicale Concentratie' was established as a faction. Through it, Tjokroaminito called for the ''Volksraad'' to become more than just an advisory body, but a representative body for the people of the Dutch East Indies, especially native Indonesians. The strong criticism of the colonial administration from both Indonesian and Dutch members, especially given the
turbulent political events in Europe at the time, caused so much concern that the in November Governor-General van Limburg Stirum addressed the ''Volksraad'' and promised extensive administrative reforms. This motivated Indonesian nationalist figures, and Tjoroaminoto immediately organised members and put forward motion for the government to immediately bring about the major changes promised to the political system and governance of the East Indies. The motion, proposed by the 'Radicale Concentratie' called on the administration to
# immediately establish an elected parliament with the right to pass laws
# work with domestic political organisations
# establish a new government acceptable to the ''Volksraad'' before 1921
The Dutch government established a commission headed by Professor Carpentier Alting to study the motion. Based on the advice of this commission, the motion was rejected almost two years later in 1920. The unkept promises from the governor-general subsequently became known bitterly as the "November promises".
Abdul Muis no longer saw any point in the ''Volksraad'' and resigned in 1921. He was replaced by
Agus Salim.
In 1927 the ''Volksraad'' was made a co-legislative body, but the governor-general retained a veto. The main use of the ''Volksraad'' for the Dutch was a means for them to learn the opinions of Indonesians, while Indonesian nationalist members could inform the public about their aspirations. That same year,
Mohammad Husni Thamrin
Mohammad Husni Thamrin (16 February 1894 – 11 January 1941) was a pre-independence Indonesian political thinker and nationalist who after his death was named a National Hero.
Early life and beginning of political career
Thamrin was born ...
was appointed a member. He established a 'National Faction' with a declared aim of full independence for Indonesia. Meanwhile, Indonesian nationalist
Sukarno established the
Indonesian National Party
The Indonesian National Party ( id, Partai Nasional Indonesia, PNI) was the name used by several nationalist political parties in Indonesia from 1927 until the 2000s. The first PNI was established by future President Sukarno. After independence, th ...
(PNI) and adopted a strategy of non-cooperation with the colonial authorities.
Meanwhile, National Faction members had become increasingly concerned about the repressive actions taken against Sukarno and the PNI leadership, which included monitoring and raids on their homes by the colonial police. Thamrin called these acts a "provocation". The administration protested about the use of this term and asked Thamrin to retract it. After arrests of PNI leadership in 1929, the pro-independence members toughened their stance, culminating in the
Soetardjo Petition, submitted by progressive members led by
Soetardjo Kartohadikusumo
Soetardjo Kartohadikusumo (22 October 1890 – 20 December 1976) was an Indonesian politician who served as the first Governor of West Java in 1945. A former member of the Volksraad, he was also renowned for the 1936 Soetardjo Petition.
Early l ...
on 15 July 1936. It called for autonomy for Indonesia as part of a Dutch commonwealth within ten years. Following a debate, the ''Volksraad'' accepted the petition by 26 votes to 20, with 15 abstentions. Among those voting against were six Indonesians, and the petition was only approved after Soetardjo's removal of the ten-year deadline persuaded the Dutch five-member Political Economic League faction to support it. On 16 November 1938, the Dutch government officially rejected the petition, claiming its contents were unclear and that its demands were at odds with the existing system of government. Indonesians then began to mock the ''Volksraad'' by deriding it using the Indonesian expression "Volk Sekarat", meaning "The People are at Death's Door". This was a reference to the dire economic circumstances Indonesians were enduring as a result of the
economic depression.
On 21 May 1939, eight nationalist organizations, including parties represented in the ''Volksraad'' came together to form the
Indonesian Political Federation
The Indonesian Political Federation ( id, Gabungan Politik Indonesia) (GAPI) was an umbrella group created in 1939 in the Dutch East Indies to unite nationalists organizations to campaign for an elected parliament for Indonesian in exchange for c ...
. In September 1940, GAPI asked the Dutch government, then in exile in London as a result of the
Germans invaded the Netherlands, for a Dutch-Indonesian union and a fully-elected Volksraad. As a result of demands both from within and outside the Volksraad, on 14 September 1940, the Dutch established a seven-man Commission to Study Changes to Administration headed by
Council of the Indies (Dutch)
The Council of the Indies ( nl, Raad van Indië; id, Dewan Hindia) was a body established in 1610 to advise and limit the powers of the governor-general of the Dutch East Indies.
Initially the council had four members and a chairman, all Dutch na ...
member F.H. Visman to hold discussions with and listen to the demands of Indonesian nationalists. As well as Visaman, the members were Judicial Director K.L.J Endgoven, Volksraad member T.G.S.G Moelia, Ong Swan Yoe,
Council of the Indies
The Council of the Indies ( es, Consejo de las Indias), officially the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies ( es, Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, link=no, ), was the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire for the Amer ...
member Soejono,
Soepomo
Soepomo (EYD: Supomo; 22 January 1903 – 12 September 1958) was an Indonesian politician and lawyer who served as the country's first Minister of Justice from August until November 1945 and again from December 1949 until 6 September 1950. K ...
, and Professor Wertheim. The secretary was A.K. Pringgodigdo. Members met with well-known individuals seen as representing their main social and political streams. The Visman commission published its report in 1942, only a few weeks before the
Japanese invasion, but the only concession granted was that the word "Indonesian" could henceforth be used instead of "Native" to refer to the people and the country.
In 1942, following the
Japanese occupation, the Dutch government abolished the post of governor general and dissolved the ''Volksraad''. Its role was taken over by a body comprising heads of departments. In September 1943, the Japanese authorities established the
Central Advisory Council
The , lead=yes was the name given to bodies established by the Japanese military administration in Java and Sumatra in 1943 during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies to notionally provide Indonesians with popular representation.
Bac ...
(''Chuo Sangi-in'') as a gesture towards popular representation for Indonesians.
Membership
At the start, 15 of the 39 members were native-born Indonesians, with the other seats occupied by Europeans and "foreign orientals". In 1927 the total number of seats was increased to 60. Of the 30 native-born members, 20 were elected, and 10 appointed.
In 1922, the
Dutch constitution
The Constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands ( nl, Grondwet voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden) is one of two fundamental documents governing the Kingdom of the Netherlands as well as the fundamental law of the European territory of the ...
was revised to state that unless specially reserved, all authority was delegated to the East Indies, the constitution of which would also have to be revised and the approved by the Dutch parliament. One result of this was that the three groups represented in the ''Volksraad'', the Dutch, Indonesians and other orientals, had separate elections for their representatives. This ensured the Indonesian representatives would not have a majority, thus protecting Dutch interests.
The term of office for ''Volksraad'' members was three years, in 1925 increased to four years. Famous
Indo-European
The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family, English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Dutc ...
members included
Karel Zaalberg and
Dick de Hoog.
There were also representatives of the colony's ''Vreemde Oosterlingen'', or 'Foreign Orientals', including
Chinese members, such as
Khouw Kim An, Majoor der Chinezen,
H. H. Kan,
Loa Sek Hie and
Phoa Liong Gie
Phoa Liong Gie Sia (: born in Bandung on June 4, 1905 – died on January 14, 1983 in Switzerland) was an Indonesian-born Swiss jurist, politician and newspaper owner of the late colonial era in the Dutch East Indies.
Background and education
H ...
. Arab members included Sayyid Ismail bin Sayyid Abdoellah bin Alwi Alatas.
Among prominent indigenous parliamentarians in the ''Volksraad'' were the Javanese
Tjokroaminoto and
Mohammad Husni Thamrin
Mohammad Husni Thamrin (16 February 1894 – 11 January 1941) was a pre-independence Indonesian political thinker and nationalist who after his death was named a National Hero.
Early life and beginning of political career
Thamrin was born ...
, the
Bantenese-
Sundanese Ahmad Djajadiningrat, the Sumatrans
Agus Salim and
Mangaradja Soeangkoepon, and the
Menadonese Sam Ratulangi
Dr. Gerungan Saul Samuel Jacob Ratulangi (also written as ''Ratu Langie''; 5 November 1890 – 30 June 1949) was a Minahasan teacher, journalist, politician, and national hero from North Sulawesi, Indonesia. He was part of the committee that rat ...
.
The last ''Volksraad'' election was in 1939, although this was still an indirect process. One tenth of the population chose 937 electors, and a further 515 were appointed by the colonial administration. The process resulted in eleven of the 19 Indonesian ''Volksraad'' members being active or former government officials. Dutch Governor-General
van Starkenborgh wanted to appoint an Indonesian,
Achmad Djajadiningrat, as charman, but was overruled by Dutch Minister of Colonial Affairs
Charles Welter, who appointed Dutchman
Jan Jonkman
Jan Anne Jonkman (Utrecht, 13 September 1891 – The Hague, 27 June 1976) was a Dutch politician.
He was a member of the PvdA. As a minister, he dealt with colonial affairs. He was also president of the Senate from 1951 to 1966. He was preced ...
.
Gallery
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Het gebouw van de Volksraad te Batavia gelegen in het Hertogspark tussen het Koningsplein-Oost en Waterlooplein TMnr 60010973.jpg, ''Volksraad'' building. Weltevreden, Batavia.
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Dick de Hoog Volksraadslid en voorzitter van het I.E.V TMnr 10001381.jpg, Dick de Hoog, president of the I.E.V. and member of the ''Volksraad''.
References
Notes and citations
Bibliography
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* Palmer and Colton. ''A History of the Modern World'' (McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1992).
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{{Members of the Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)
Dutch East Indies
Dutch East Indies
1918 establishments in the Dutch East Indies
1942 disestablishments in the Dutch East Indies
History of Indonesia
Politics of Indonesia
Indo people