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Quran The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
contains verses believed by
Muslims Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraha ...
to be revealed to the Islamic prophet
Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mono ...
at different times and under different circumstances – some exhorting
violence Violence is the use of physical force so as to injure, abuse, damage, or destroy. Other definitions are also used, such as the World Health Organization's definition of violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened o ...
against enemies and others urging restraint and conciliation. Because some verses abrogate others, and because some are thought to be general commands while others refer to specific enemies, how the verses are understood and how they relate to each other "has been a central issue in Islamic thinking on war" according to scholars such as Charles Matthews. While numerous scholars explain Quranic phrases on violence to be only in the context of a defensive response to oppression;Sam Harri
Who Are the Moderate Muslims?
/ref>Sohail H. Hashmi, David Miller, ''Boundaries and Justice: diverse ethical perspectives'', Princeton University Press, p. 197The non-Muslims take their proof from the actions of the radical Muslim Jihadists. Khaleel Muhammad, professor of religious studies at San Diego State University, states, regarding his discussion with the critic Robert Spencer, that "when I am told ... that Jihad only means war, or that I have to accept interpretations of the Quran that non-Muslims (with no good intentions or knowledge of Islam)and 21st century radical Jihadists seek to force upon me, I see a certain agendum developing: one that is based on hate, and I refuse to be part of such an intellectual crime

violent groups have interpreted verses to endorse their violent actions and made the Quran's teachings on violence and war a topic of vigorous debate.


Abrogation

Charles Matthews writes that there is a "large debate about what the Quran commands as regards the "sword verses" and the "peace verses". According to Matthews, "the question of the proper prioritization of these verses, and how they should be understood in relation to one another, has been a central issue for Islamic thinking about war." Prior to the Hijra (Islam), Hijra travel,
Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mono ...
struggled non-violently against his oppressors in
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow val ...
.Boulding, Elise. "Cultures of Peace: The Hidden Side of History", p. 57 It wasn't until after the exile that the Quranic revelations began to adopt a more offensive perspective. According to Oliver Leaman, a number of Islamic jurists asserted the primacy of the "sword verses" over the conciliatory verses in specific historical circumstances. For example, according to Diane Morgan,
Ibn Kathir Abū al-Fiḍā’ ‘Imād ad-Dīn Ismā‘īl ibn ‘Umar ibn Kathīr al-Qurashī al-Damishqī (Arabic: إسماعيل بن عمر بن كثير القرشي الدمشقي أبو الفداء عماد; – 1373), known as Ibn Kathīr (, was ...
(1301–1372) asserted that the Sword Verse abrogated all peace treaties that had been promulgated between Muhammad and idolaters.
Modernists Modernism is both a philosophy, philosophical and arts movement that arose from broad transformations in Western world, Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new fo ...
reject the abrogating status of the sword verses, which would result in the abrogation (naskh) of numerous Quranic verses that counsel peace and reconciliation.


Peace and conciliation

Numerous scholars and authors, both Muslim and non-Muslim have testified to the underlying rejection of violence, cruelty, coercion, and intolerance of the Quran and its embrace of justice and self-defence. According to Fawzy Abdelmalek, "many Muslim scholars speak of Islam as a religion of peace and not of violence. They say that the non-Muslims misunderstand the Quran verses about Jihad and the conduct of war in Islam." Nissim Rejwan asserts that "violence and cruelty are not in the spirit of the Quran, nor are they found in the life of the Prophet, nor in the lives of saintly Muslims." According to Feisal Abdul Rauf, "the Quran expressly and unambiguously prohibits the use of coercion in faith because coercion would violate a fundamental human right— the right to a free conscience. A different belief system is not deemed a legitimate cause for violence or war under Islamic law. The Quran is categorical on this: "There shall be no compulsion in religion" ( Q2:256); "Say to the disbelievers hat is, atheists, or polytheists, namely those who reject God"To you, your beliefs, to me, mine" ( Q109:1–6)" Charles Matthews characterizes the peace verses as saying that, "if others want peace, you can accept them as peaceful even if they are not Muslim." As an example, Matthews cites the second sura which commands believers not to transgress limits in warfare: "fight in God's cause against those who fight you, but do not transgress limits n aggression God does not love transgressors" ( Q2:190). Chiba and Schoenbaum argue that Islam "does not allow Muslims to fight against those who disagree with them regardless of belief system", but instead "urges its followers to treat such people kindly". Yohanan Friedmann has argued that the Quran does not promote fighting for the purposes of religious coercion, although the war as described is "religious" in the sense that the enemies of the Muslims are described as "enemies of God" ( Q8:57–62). Solomon A. Nigosian has argued that in "duty to halt aggression or to strive for the preservation of Islamic principles", fighting may be involved, where the Quran encourages them to "fight courageously and steadfastly against recalcitrant states, be they Muslim or non-Muslim." He also argues that the "Quranic statement is clear" on the issue of fighting in defence of Islam as "a duty that is to be carried out at all costs", where "God grants security to those Muslims who fight in order to halt or repel aggression". According to Chandra Muzaffar, "The Quranic exposition on resisting aggression, oppression and injustice lays down the parameters within which fighting or the use of violence is legitimate. What this means is that one can use the Quran as the criterion for when violence is legitimate and when it is not." In the Islamic telling of
Cain and Abel In the biblical Book of Genesis, Cain ''Qayīn'', in pausa ''Qāyīn''; gr, Κάϊν ''Káïn''; ar, قابيل/قايين, Qābīl / Qāyīn and Abel ''Heḇel'', in pausa ''Hāḇel''; gr, Ἅβελ ''Hábel''; ar, هابيل, Hābīl ...
, Abel tells his murderous brother that "If thou dost stretch thy hand against me to slay me, it is not for me to stretch my hand against thee to slay thee: for I do fear Allah". Some scholars, such as Jawdat Said, have identified this as an example of pacifism. Various Ahmadis scholars like
Muhammad Ali Muhammad Ali (; born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.; January 17, 1942 – June 3, 2016) was an American professional boxer and activist. Nicknamed "The Greatest", he is regarded as one of the most significant sports figures of the 20th century, a ...
, Maulana Sadr-ud-Din, Basharat Ahmad and also the British orientalist
Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner (14 October 1840 – 22 March 1899), also known as Gottlieb William Leitner, was a British orientalist. Early life and education Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner was born in Pest, Hungary, on 14 October 1840 to a Jewish f ...
argue that when the Quran's verses are read in context, it clearly appears that the Quran prohibits initial aggression, and allows fighting only in self-defense.Ali, Maulana Muhammad; The Religion of Islam (6th Edition), Ch V "Jihad" p. 414 "When shall war cease". Published by '' The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement

/ref>Sadr-u-Din, Maulvi. "Quran and War", p. 8. Published by The Muslim Book Society, Lahore, Pakistan

/ref>The Quranic Commandments Regarding War/Jihad
An English rendering of an Urdu article appearing in Basharat-e-Ahmadiyya Vol. I, pp. 228–32, by Dr Basharat Ahmad; published by the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam
Ali, Maulana Muhammad. ''The Religion of Islam'' (6th Edition), Ch V "Jihad". pp. 411–13. Published by The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement
link
/ref> Arvind Kumar writes: According to
Khaled Abou El Fadl Khaled Abou el Fadl ( ar, خالد أبو الفضل, ) (born October 23, 1963) is the Omar and Azmeralda Alfi Distinguished Professor of Law at the UCLA School of Law where he has taught courses on International Human Rights, Islamic jurisprud ...
, "there is not a single verse in the Quran that calls for an unmitigated, unqualified, or unreserved obligation to fight the unbelievers." According to Esposito and Mogahed, the Quran balances permission to fight the enemy with a strong mandate for making peace.


Verses on conflict

Quran scholars claim that the textual context of this particular passage is defensive war after the
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah ( ar, صُلح ٱلْحُدَيْبِيَّة, Ṣulḥ Al-Ḥudaybiyyah) was an event that took place during the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was a pivotal treaty between Muhammad, representing the state ...
was broken by the Qurayshi-affiliated
Banu Bakr The Banu Bakr bin Wa'il ( ar, بنو بكر بن وائل '), or simply Banu Bakr, were an Arabian tribe belonging to the large Rabi'ah branch of Adnanite tribes, which also included Abd al-Qays, Anazzah, Taghlib. The tribe is reputed to have ...
tribe when they attacked the Muslim-allied tribe of Banu Khaza'a. In response, the Prophet sent a letter requesting the Quraysh to either terminate their alliance with Banu Bakr or pay a ransom. The Quraysh rejected both of Mohammad's offers, thus, breaking the treaty. It is also agreed upon that the verse refers to only the ones who broke the treaty. The previous verse says: This has been used to argue that fighting is only permissible as a form of defence. There are two points made in Quran 2:191 that may cause some debate. The first is that the killing of others is authorized in the event of "persecution;" Muhsin Khan translates, {{quote, And fight in the Way of Allah those who fight you, but transgress not the limits. Truly, Allah likes not the transgressors. 'This Verse is the first one that was revealed in connection with Jihad, but it was supplemented by another (Q9:36)'']. And kill them wherever you find them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out. And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing. And fight not with them at Al-Masjid-al-Haram (the sanctuary at Makkah), unless they (first) fight you there. But if they attack you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers. Fight them until there is no
ore Ore is natural rock or sediment that contains one or more valuable minerals, typically containing metals, that can be mined, treated and sold at a profit.Encyclopædia Britannica. "Ore". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 7 April ...
fitnah and ntilworship is cknowledged to befor Allah. But if they cease, then there is to be no aggression except against the oppressors
source
/ref>{{cite web, title=The Order to fight until there is no more Fitnah, url=http://abdurrahman.org/qurantafseer/ibnkathir/ibnkathir_web/2.5035.html, publisher=Abdur Rahman, access-date=26 March 2012 the second is that fighting may persist until "religion is for Allah" and there is no more " fitnah" (fitnah having many possible interpretations, the most likely being "trial" or "testing").Ibn Kathir asserted that "Fitnah" means "
Shirk Shirk may refer to: * Shirk (surname) * Shirk (Islam), in Islam, the sin of idolatry or associating beings or things with Allah * Shirk, Iran, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran * Shirk-e Sorjeh, a village in South Khorasan Province, I ...
". {{cite web, title=Tafsir Ibn Kathir, url=http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=233, publisher=Quick Quran Tafsir, access-date=26 March 2012
Quran 2:191–193 Micheline R. Ishay has argued that "the Quran justifies wars for self-defense to protect Islamic communities against internal or external aggression by non-Islamic populations, and wars waged against those who 'violate their oaths' by breaking a treaty".
Mufti A Mufti (; ar, مفتي) is an Islamic jurist qualified to issue a nonbinding opinion ('' fatwa'') on a point of Islamic law (''sharia''). The act of issuing fatwas is called ''iftāʾ''. Muftis and their ''fatwas'' played an important rol ...
M. Mukarram Ahmed has also argued that the Quran encourages people to fight in self-defence. He has also argued that the Quran has been used to direct Muslims to make all possible preparations to defend themselves against enemies.


Sword Verses

There are two principal verses in the Quran (9:5 and 9:29) that are called "sword verses" though the word 'sword' does not occur in the Quran. Quran 9:5, in particular, from
Sura A ''surah'' (; ar, سورة, sūrah, , ), is the equivalent of "chapter" in the Qur'an. There are 114 ''surahs'' in the Quran, each divided into '' ayats'' (verses). The chapters or ''surahs'' are of unequal length; the shortest surah (''Al-Ka ...
h
At-Tawba At-Tawbah ( ar, ٱلتوبة, ; The Repentance), also known as Bara'ah ( ar, براءة, ; Repudiation), is the ninth chapter ('' sūrah'') of the Quran. It contains 129 verses ('' āyāt'') and is one of the last Medinan surahs. This Surah ...
is known as the Sword Verse or Verse of the Sword (''Ayat al-sayf''). {{Blockquote, text=But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, an seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war); but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practise regular charity, then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful., author={{qref, 9, 5, t=y, c=y Reuven Firestone says that Ibn Kathir held that four of the "sword verses" refer specifically to "four types of people against whom the Muslims are obligated to fight: 9:5 refers to fighting the idolaters; 9:29 refers to fighting the Scriptuaries until they pay the poll tax; 9:73 refers to fighting those who outwardly appear as Muslims but who actually oppose Muhammad and the community of Islam, and 49:9 refers to fighting Muslims who unjustly oppress other Muslims."
Patricia Crone Patricia Crone (March 28, 1945July 11, 2015) was a Danish historian specializing in early Islamic history. Crone was a member of the Revisionist school of Islamic studies and questioned the historicity of the Islamic traditions about the beginni ...
states that the famous Verse of the Sword is directed against a particular group accused of oath-breaking and aggression, and exempts those polytheists who remained faithful. Crone states that this verse seems to be based on the rules mentioned above. Here also it is stressed that one must stop when they do.Patricia Crone, Encyclopedia of the Quran, War article, p. 456
Oliver Leaman Oliver Leaman (born 1950) is a professor of philosophy and Zantker Professor of Judaic studies at the University of Kentucky, where he has been teaching since 2000. He studies the history of Islamic, Jewish and Eastern philosophy Eastern ph ...
says that Quran {{qref, 60, 8 implies that "non-Muslims of good will and pacific nature cannot be the targets of war simply on account of their different religious background".{{citation , title=Jewish thought: an introduction , first=Oliver, last=Leaman , author-link=Oliver Leaman , publisher=Taylor & Francis , year=2006 , page=69 , isbn=9780203088685, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLLKcZuGCQ4C&pg=PA69


Warfare

{{Main, War in Islam {{See also, Jihad, Jihad in Hadith, Offensive jihad, Defensive jihad, Opinion of Islamic scholars on Jihad, Jihadism, Salafi jihadism, Itmam al-hujjah, Ghazw The Quran asserts that if the use of force would not have been allowed in curbing the evils by nations, the disruption and disorder caused by insurgent nations could have reached the extent that the places of worship would have become deserted and forsaken. As it states: {{blockquote, …And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished monasteries, churches,
synagogue A synagogue, ', 'house of assembly', or ', "house of prayer"; Yiddish: ''shul'', Ladino: or ' (from synagogue); or ', "community". sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of wors ...
s, and
mosques A mosque (; from ar, مَسْجِد, masjid, ; literally "place of ritual prostration"), also called masjid, is a place of prayer for Muslims. Mosques are usually covered buildings, but can be any place where prayers (sujud) are performed, in ...
in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him…, Quran 22:40} Javed Ahmed Ghamidi divides just warfare into two types: # Against injustice and oppression # Against the rejecters of truth after it has become evident to them The first type of Jihad is generally considered eternal, but Ghamidi holds that the second is specific to people who were selected by God for delivering the truth as an obligation. They are called witnesses of the truth (Arabic:''{{lang, ar, شهادة'', see also Itmam al-hujjah); the implication being that they bear witness to the truth before other people in such a complete and ultimate manner that no one is left with an excuse to deny the truth.{{cite book , last = Ghamidi , first = Javed , author-link = Javed Ahmed Ghamidi , title = Mizan , publisher = Dar ul-Ishraq , chapter=The Islamic Law of Jihad , chapter-url=http://www.studying-islam.org/articletext.aspx?id=771 , year = 2001 , oclc=52901690 , title-link = Mizan There is a dispute among Islamic jurists as to whether the act of being "witness" was only for the companions of Muhammad or whether this responsibility is still being held by modern Muslims, which may entitle them to take actions to subdue other Non-Muslim nations. Proponents of companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" translate the following verse only for the companions while others translate it for the whole Muslim nation. As in Quran: {{blockquote, And similarly Companions_of_the_Muhammad.html" "title="Sahaba.html" ;"title=" Sahaba">Companions of the Muhammad">Prophet In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the s ...
!] We have made you an intermediate group so that you be witnesses [to this religion] before the nations, and the Messenger be such a witness before you., Quran 2:143} Similarly, proponents of the companions of Muhammad as being "the witness" present the following verse to argue that the companions were chosen people as witnesses just as God chooses Messengers from mankind. As in Quran: {{blockquote, And strive in His cause as ye ought to strive, (with sincerity and under discipline). He has chosen you, and has imposed no difficulties on you in religion; it is the religion of your father Abraham. It is He Who has named you Muslims, both before and in this
uran Uran is a coastal town and part of Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, Maharashtra state in Konkan division. It lies in the Raigad district, east of Mumbai across the Dharamtar Creek. Uran is primarily a fishing and agriculture village, which has develo ...
e chose you so thatthe Messenger may be a witness f this religionto you, and you be witnesses of this religion to non-Muslims f your times, Quran 22:78, } Following is the first verse of the Quran in which the companions of Muhammad, who had migrated from Mecca, were given permission to fight back if they were attacked: {{blockquote, Permission to take up arms is hereby given to those who are attacked because they have been oppressed – Allah indeed has the power to grant them victory – those who have been unjustly driven from their homes, only because they said: "Our Lord is Allah"., Quran 22:39-40, } The reason for this directive in Medina instead of Mecca considered by most Muslim scholars is that without political authority armed offensives become tantamount to spreading disorder and anarchy in the society. As one of Islamic jurist writes: {{blockquote, Among ''Kafayah'' obligations, the third category is that for which the existence of a ruler is necessary e.g., ''Jihad'' and execution of punishments. Therefore, only a ruler has this prerogative. Because, indeed, no one else has the right to punish another person., Sayyid Sabiq, Fiqhu'l-Sunnah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru'l-Fikr, 1980), p. 30


Subduing the enemy

These verses told Muslims that they should not merely fight the Banu Quraish if they resist them in offering
Hajj The Hajj (; ar, حَجّ '; sometimes also spelled Hadj, Hadji or Haj in English) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried o ...
, but the Quran goes on to say that they should continue to fight them until persecution is uprooted and Islam prevails in the whole of
Arabia The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plat ...
. Initially, Muslims were required to fulfil this responsibility even if the enemy was 10 times stronger. Afterwards, the Quran reduced the burden of this responsibility. As in Quran: {{blockquote, Prophet! Rouse the believers to wage war. If there are twenty amongst you, patient and persevering, they will subdue two hundred: if a hundred, they will subdue a thousand of the disbelievers: for these are a people without understanding., Quran 8:65, } {{blockquote, romnow, God has lightened your
ask Ask is the active verb for a direct question. Ask may also refer to: Places * Ask, Akershus, a village in Gjerdrum municipality, Viken county, Norway * Ask, Buskerud, a village in Ringerike municipality, Viken county, Norway * Ask, Vestland, ...
for He knows that there is now weakness amongst you: But ver so if there are a hundred of you, patient and persevering, they will subdue two hundred, and if a thousand, they will subdue two thousand, with the leave of God: for God is with those who patiently persevere., Quran 8:66, } Some interpret above verses that ''jihad'' never becomes obligatory unless the military might of the Muslims reaches a certain level. In the times of Muhammad, when large-scale conversions took place in the later phase, the Quran reduced the Muslim to enemy ratio to 1:2. It seems that Muslims should not only consolidate their moral character, but it is also imperative for them to build their military might if they want to wage ''Jihad'' when the need arises. The Quran gave a similar directive to Muslims of Muhammad's times in the following words: {{blockquote, Muster against them all the men and cavalry at your disposal so that you can strike terror into the enemies of Allah and of the believers and others besides them who may be unknown to you, though Allah knows them. And remember whatever you spend for the cause of Allah shall be repaid to you. You shall not be wronged., Quran 8:60, } Other scholars consider the later command of ratio 1:2 only for a particular time. A policy was adopted regarding the extent of the requirement that arose in wars that the Muslims had to fight. In the battles of Badr,
Uhud Mount Uhud ( ar, جَبَل أُحُد, Jabal Uḥud) is a mountain north of Medina, Saudi Arabia. It is high and 7.5 km long. It was the site of the second battle between Muslim and unbelievers. The Battle of Uhud was fought on 19 March, 6 ...
and Tabuk, the response was much more and each Muslim was required to present his services as a combatant. As in Quran: {{blockquote, Not equal are those of the believers who sit t homewithout any enuineexcuse and those who strive hard and fight in the cause of Allah with their wealth and their lives. Allah has given preference by a degree to those who strive hard and fight with their wealth and their lives above those who sit t home n reality for each, Allah has made a good promise and n realityAllah has preferred those who strive hard and fight above those who sit t homeby a huge reward. Degrees of ighergrades from Him and forgiveness and mercy. And Allah is Ever-Forgiving, Most Merciful., Quran 4:95-96, } Quran also states that turning backs in the battlefield, except for tactical purposes, is a big sin and will bring the wrath of God. As in Quran: {{blockquote, O you who believe! when you meet those who disbelieve marching for war, then turn not your backs to them. And whoever shall turn his back to them on that day – unless he turn aside for the sake of fighting or withdraws to a company – then he, indeed, becomes deserving of Allah's wrath, and his abode is hell; and an evil destination shall it be., Quran 8:15-16, } {{blockquote, So when you meet those who disbelieve, then strike the necks until when you have subdued then bind firmly the bond, then either a favour afterwards or ransom until lays down the war its burdens. That. And if Allah had willed surely, He could have taken retribution from them, but to test some of you with others. And those who are killed in (the) way of Allah, then never He will cause to be lost their deeds.


Proper fighting motivation

Islamic scholars agree that ''Jihad'' should not be undertaken to gratify one's whims nor to obtain wealth and riches. Many also consider that it must also not be undertaken to conquer territories and rule them or to acquire fame or to appease the emotions of communal support, partisanship and animosity. On the contrary, it should be undertaken only for the cause of Allah as is evident from the words. As in Quran: {{blockquote, Those who believe, fight in the cause of Allah, and those who disbelieve, fight in the cause of Satan. So fight you against the friends of Satan. Ever feeble indeed is the plot of Satan. , Quran 4:76, } Muhammad, in various instances, also explained very forcefully this purport of the Quran: * Abu Musa Ash'ari narrates that once a person came to Muhammad and said that some people fight for the spoils of war, some for fame and some to show off their valour; he then asked Muhammad: "Which of them fight in the way of Allah". Muhammad replied: "Only that person fights in the way of Allah who sets foot in the battlefield to raise high the name of Allah".
Sahih Bukhari Sahih al-Bukhari ( ar, صحيح البخاري, translit=Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī), group=note is a ''hadith'' collection and a book of '' sunnah'' compiled by the Persian scholar Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl al-Bukhārī (810–870) around 846. A ...
2810 * Abu Hurayrah narrates from Muhammad: "I swear by the Almighty that a person who is wounded in the way of Allah – and Allah knows full well who is actually wounded in His way – he would be raised on the Day of Judgement such that his colour be the colour of blood with the fragrance of musk around him". Sahih Bukhari 2803 * Ibn Jabr narrates from Muhammad: "A person whose feet become dust ridden because of trivingin the way of Allah will never be touched by the flames of Hell". Sahih Bukhari 2811 * Sahal Ibn Sa'ad says that Muhammad once said: "To reside in a border area for a day to protect eopleagainst an enemy nvasionis better than this world and everything it has". Sahih Bukhari 2892. Similarly, as a reward for participation in such a strive, the Quran states: {{blockquote, Consider not those who are killed in the way of Allah as dead. Nay, they are alive with their Lord, and they will be provided for. They rejoice in what Allah has bestowed upon them of His bounty and rejoice for the sake of those who have not yet joined them, but are left behind ot yet martyredthat on them too no fear shall come, nor shall they grieve. They rejoice in a grace and a bounty from Allah, and that Allah will not waste the reward of the believers.., Quran 3:169-171, } ; Opportunities for plunder and reward in heaven
Sura 4 An-Nisa' ( ar, ٱلنِّسَاء, ; The Women) is the fourth chapter (sūrah) of the Quran, with 176 verses ( āyāt). The title derives from the numerous references to women throughout the chapter, including verse 34 and verses 127-130.Hale ...
verses 71–76 urge Muslims to liberate the oppressed and also warns those who stay behind and fail to fight that they shall miss out on plunder, but those who fight and slain shall go to heaven: {{blockquote, O you who believe! Take your precautions, and either go forth (on an expedition) in parties or go forth all together. There is certainly among you he who would linger behind (from fighting in Allah's Cause). If a misfortune befalls you, he says, "Indeed Allah has favoured me in that I was not present among them." But if a bounty (victory and booty) comes to you from Allah, he would surely say – as if there had never been ties of affection between you and him – "Oh! I wish I had been with them; then I would have achieved a great success ( a good share of booty)." Let those (believers) who sell the life of this world for the Hereafter fight in the Cause of Allah, and whoso fights in the Cause of Allah, and is killed or gets a victory, We shall bestow on him a great reward. And what is wrong with you that you fight not in the Cause of Allah, and for those weak, ill-treated and oppressed among men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town whose people are oppressors, and raise for us from You one who will protect, and raise for us from You one who will help." Those who believe, fight in the Cause of Allah, and those who disbelieve, fight in the cause of Taghut (Satan, etc.). So fight you against the friends of Shaitan (Satan); Ever feeble indeed is the plot of Shaitan (Satan). , Quran 4:71-76, } Most Muslim scholars consider it an eternal directive and believe that all types of oppression should be considered under this directive. Similarly, if a group of Muslims commit unwarranted aggression against some of their brothers and does not desist from it even after all attempts of reconciliation, such a group according to the Quran should be fought with: {{blockquote, And if two parties or groups among the believers start fighting, then make peace between them both. But if one of them outrages against the other, then fight you against the one which outrages till it complies with the command of Allah. Then if it complies, make reconciliation between them justly, and be equitable. Verily! Allah loves those who are equitable. The believers are brothers to one another. So make reconciliation between your brothers, and fear Allah that you may receive mercy., Quran 49:9-10, }


Regulation of warfare

{{Main, Islamic military jurisprudence, Islamic ethics
Islamic Law Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the ...
, based upon the Quran and practices of Muhammad has set down a set of laws to be observed during the lesser Jihad. Quran forbids fighting in the sacred month and similarly within the boundaries of
Haram ''Haram'' (; ar, حَرَام, , ) is an Arabic term meaning 'Forbidden'. This may refer to either something sacred to which access is not allowed to the people who are not in a state of purity or who are not initiated into the sacred knowle ...
(the area around the Grand Mosque of Mecca). But if non-Muslims disregard these sanctities, Muslims are asked to retaliate in equal measure. It is stated in Quran: {{blockquote, A sacred month for a sacred month; imilarlyother sacred things too are subject to retaliation. So if anyone transgresses against you, you should also pay back in equal coins. Have fear of Allah and eep in mind thatAllah is with those who remain within the bounds tipulated by religion, Quran 2:194, } Observance of treaties and pacts is stressed in the Quran. When some Muslims were still in Mecca, and they could not migrate to Medina, the Quran stated: {{blockquote, And to those who accepted faith but did not migrate o Madinah you owe no duty of protection to them until they migrate; but if they seek your help in religion, it is your duty to help them except against a people with whom you have a treaty of mutual alliance; and Allah is the All-Seer of what you do., Quran 8:72, } Similar reports are attributed to Muhammad: {{blockquote, Abu Sa'id narrates from Muhammad: "On the
Day of Judgment The Last Judgment, Final Judgment, Day of Reckoning, Day of Judgment, Judgment Day, Doomsday, Day of Resurrection or The Day of the Lord (; ar, یوم القيامة, translit=Yawm al-Qiyāmah or ar, یوم الدین, translit=Yawm ad-Dīn, ...
, to proclaim the traitorous actions of a traitor and the betrayal of a person who betrayed his words, a flag shall be hoisted which would be as high as he extent of histraitorous behaviour", and Muhammad also said: "Remember that no traitor and betrayer of promises is greater than the one who is the leader and ruler of people".
Sahih Muslim Sahih Muslim ( ar, صحيح مسلم, translit=Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim), group=note is a 9th-century '' hadith'' collection and a book of '' sunnah'' compiled by the Persian scholar Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj (815–875). It is one of the most valued b ...
1738 The basic principle in fighting in the Quran is that other communities should be treated as one's own. Fighting is justified for legitimate self-defence, to aid other Muslims and after a violation in the terms of a treaty, but should be stopped if these circumstances cease to exist. The principle of forgiveness is reiterated in between the assertions of the right to
self-defence Self-defense (self-defence primarily in Commonwealth English) is a countermeasure that involves defending the health and well-being of oneself from harm. The use of the right of self-defense as a legal justification for the use of force in ...
. During his life, Muhammad gave various injunctions to his forces and adopted practices toward the conduct of war. The most important of these were summarized by Muhammad's companion,
Abu Bakr Abu Bakr Abdallah ibn Uthman Abi Quhafa (; – 23 August 634) was the senior companion and was, through his daughter Aisha, a father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as well as the first caliph of Islam. He is known with the hono ...
, in the form of ten rules for the Muslim army: {{blockquote, Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the battlefield. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kills a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone., author=Abu Bakr, These injunctions were honored by the second
Caliph A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
, Umar, during whose reign (634–644) important
Muslim conquests The early Muslim conquests or early Islamic conquests ( ar, الْفُتُوحَاتُ الإسْلَامِيَّة, ), also referred to as the Arab conquests, were initiated in the 7th century by Muhammad, the main Islamic prophet. He estab ...
took place. These principles were also honoured during the
Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were ...
, as exemplified by sultans such as Saladin and
al-Kamil Al-Kamil ( ar, الكامل) (full name: al-Malik al-Kamil Naser ad-Din Abu al-Ma'ali Muhammad) (c. 1177 – 6 March 1238) was a Muslim ruler and the fourth Ayyubid sultan of Egypt. During his tenure as sultan, the Ayyubids defeated the Fifth Cru ...
. For example, after al-Kamil defeated the
Franks The Franks ( la, Franci or ) were a group of Germanic peoples whose name was first mentioned in 3rd-century Roman sources, and associated with tribes between the Lower Rhine and the Ems River, on the edge of the Roman Empire.H. Schutz: Too ...
during the
Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were ...
, Oliverus Scholasticus praised the Islamic
laws of war The law of war is the component of international law that regulates the conditions for initiating war ('' jus ad bellum'') and the conduct of warring parties (''jus in bello''). Laws of war define sovereignty and nationhood, states and territ ...
, commenting on how al-Kamil supplied the defeated Frankish army with food:{{citation, title=Justice Without Frontiers, first=Christopher G., last=Judge Weeramantry, year=1997, publisher=
Brill Publishers Brill Academic Publishers (known as E. J. Brill, Koninklijke Brill, Brill ()) is a Dutch international academic publisher founded in 1683 in Leiden, Netherlands. With offices in Leiden, Boston, Paderborn and Singapore, Brill today publishes ...
, isbn=90-411-0241-8, page=136
{{blockquote, Who could doubt that such goodness, friendship and charity come from God? Men whose parents, sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, had died in agony at our hands, whose lands we took, whom we drove naked from their homes, revived us with their own food when we were dying of hunger and showered us with kindness even when we were in their power., author=Oliverus Scholasticus, During the
Battle of Siffin The Battle of Siffin was fought in 657 CE (37 AH) between Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth of the Rashidun Caliphs and the first Shia Imam, and Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the rebellious governor of Syria. The battle is named after its location ...
, the Caliph Ali stated that Islam does not permit Muslims to stop the supply of water to their enemy. In addition to the Rashidun Caliphs, hadiths attributed to Muhammad himself suggest that he stated the following regarding the
Muslim conquest of Egypt The Muslim conquest of Egypt, led by the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As, took place between 639 and 646 AD and was overseen by the Rashidun Caliphate. It ended the seven-century-long period of Roman reign over Egypt that began in 30 BC. Byzantine r ...
: {{blockquote, You are going to enter
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medite ...
a land where ''qirat'' (money unit) is used. Be extremely good to them as they have with us close ties and marriage relationships. When you enter Egypt after my death, recruit many soldiers from among the
Egyptians Egyptians ( arz, المَصرِيُون, translit=al-Maṣriyyūn, ; arz, المَصرِيِين, translit=al-Maṣriyyīn, ; cop, ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, remenkhēmi) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian ...
because they are the best soldiers on earth, as they and their wives are permanently on duty until the
Day of Resurrection In Islam, "the promise and threat" () of Judgment Day ( ar, یوم القيامة, Yawm al-qiyāmah, Day of Resurrection or ar, یوم الدین, italic=no, Yawm ad-din, Day of Judgement), when "all bodies will be resurrected" from the dead, an ...
. Be good to the
Copt Copts ( cop, ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ ; ar, الْقِبْط ) are a Christian ethnoreligious group indigenous to North Africa who have primarily inhabited the area of modern Egypt and Sudan since antiquity. Most ethnic Copts are C ...
s of Egypt; you shall take them over, but they shall be your instrument and help. Be Righteous to God about the Copts.{{citation, title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium : Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings, first=Okasha, last=El Daly, publisher=
Routledge Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law, ...
, year=2004, isbn=1-84472-063-2, page=18
The early Islamic treatises on
international law International law (also known as public international law and the law of nations) is the set of rules, norms, and standards generally recognized as binding between states. It establishes normative guidelines and a common conceptual framework for ...
from the 9th century onwards covered the application of
Islamic economic jurisprudence Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or ''Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the main ...
, ethics and military jurisprudence to international law,{{citation, title=Al-Shaybani and the Islamic Law of War, last=Kelsay, first=J., s2cid=143975172, journal=Journal of Military Ethics, volume=2, issue=1, date=March 2003, publisher=
Routledge Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law, ...
, pages=63–75, doi=10.1080/15027570310000027
and were concerned with a number of modern international law topics, including the law of treaties; the treatment of
diplomat A diplomat (from grc, δίπλωμα; romanized ''diploma'') is a person appointed by a state or an intergovernmental institution such as the United Nations or the European Union to conduct diplomacy with one or more other states or internat ...
s,
hostage A hostage is a person seized by an abductor in order to compel another party, one which places a high value on the liberty, well-being and safety of the person seized, such as a relative, employer, law enforcement or government to act, or refr ...
s,
refugee A refugee, conventionally speaking, is a displaced person who has crossed national borders and who cannot or is unwilling to return home due to well-founded fear of persecution.
s and
prisoners of war A prisoner of war (POW) is a person who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold prisoners of w ...
; the
right of asylum The right of asylum (sometimes called right of political asylum; ) is an ancient juridical concept, under which people persecuted by their own rulers might be protected by another sovereign authority, like a second country or another enti ...
; conduct on the battlefield; protection of women, children and
non-combatant Non-combatant is a term of art in the law of war and international humanitarian law to refer to civilians who are not taking a direct part in hostilities; persons, such as combat medics and military chaplains, who are members of the belligere ...
civilian Civilians under international humanitarian law are "persons who are not members of the armed forces" and they are not "combatants if they carry arms openly and respect the laws and customs of war". It is slightly different from a non-combatant, ...
s;
contract A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between two or more parties that creates, defines, and governs mutual rights and obligations between them. A contract typically involves the transfer of goods, services, money, or a promise to tr ...
s across the lines of battle; the use of
poison Poison is a chemical substance that has a detrimental effect to life. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figuratively, with a broa ...
ous weapons; and devastation of enemy territory.


Al-Anfal 39

According to Quran 8:39, the objectives of Muslims in their fighting should be to: # Put a stop to tumult, oppression injustice (Uproot ''fitnah'' ({{lang, ar, فتنة) or persecution, some scholars argue that the word fitnah means
Shirk Shirk may refer to: * Shirk (surname) * Shirk (Islam), in Islam, the sin of idolatry or associating beings or things with Allah * Shirk, Iran, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran * Shirk-e Sorjeh, a village in South Khorasan Province, I ...
{{cite web, title=Hadith Explanation, url=http://dailyhadith.adaptivesolutionsinc.com/hadith/Love-of-Muslims.htm, publisher=Hadith Explanations, access-date=15 March 2012 ) # Establish supremacy of God, through Islam, in the Arabian Peninsula


Military campaigns of Muhammad and his companions

After Itmam al-hujjah (clarification of religion to the addressees in its ultimate form), Jews were subdued first and had been granted
amnesty Amnesty (from the Ancient Greek ἀμνηστία, ''amnestia'', "forgetfulness, passing over") is defined as "A pardon extended by the government to a group or class of people, usually for a political offense; the act of a sovereign power offic ...
because of various pacts. Those among them who violated these pacts were given the punishment of denying a Messenger of God. Muhammad exiled the tribe of
Banu Qaynuqa The Banu Qaynuqa ( ar, بنو قينقاع; he, בני קינוקאע; also spelled Banu Kainuka, Banu Kaynuka, Banu Qainuqa, Banu Qaynuqa) was one of the three main Jewish tribes living in the 7th century of Medina, now in Saudi Arabia. The grea ...
to Khyber and that of
Banu Nadir The Banu Nadir ( ar, بَنُو ٱلنَّضِير, he, בני נצ'יר) were a Jewish Arab tribe which lived in northern Arabia at the oasis of Medina until the 7th century. The tribe refused to convert to Islam as Muhammad had ordered it to d ...
to
Syria Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
.
Ibn Hisham Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Hishām ibn Ayyūb al-Ḥimyarī al-Muʿāfirī al-Baṣrī ( ar, أبو محمد عبدالملك بن هشام ابن أيوب الحميري المعافري البصري; died 7 May 833), or Ibn Hisham, e ...
, al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, 2nd ed., vol. 3, (Beirut: Daru'l-Khayr, 1995), pp. 40–42, 151–60
the Banu Qaynuqa at Khyber was crushed by an attack at their strongholds. Prior to this, Abu al-Rafi and
Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf ( ar, كعب بن الأشرف; died ) was, according Islamic texts, a Jewish leader and poet in Medina. Biography Ka'b was born to a father from the Arab Tayy tribe and a mother from the Jewish Banu Nadir tribe. His fathe ...
were put to death in their houses. The tribe of
Banu Qurayza The Banu Qurayza ( ar, بنو قريظة, he, בני קוריט'ה; alternate spellings include Quraiza, Qurayzah, Quraytha, and the archaic Koreiza) were a Jewish tribe which lived in northern Arabia, at the oasis of Yathrib (now known as M ...
was guilty of treachery and disloyalty in the battle of the Ahzab. When the clouds of war dispersed and the chances of an external attack no longer remained, Muhammad laid siege around them. When no hope remained, they asked Muhammad to appoint Sa'd ibn Mua'dh as an arbitrator to decide their fate. Their request was accepted. Since, at that time, no specific punishment had been revealed in the Quran about the fate of the Jews, Sa'd ibn Mua'dh announced his verdict in accordance with the
Torah The Torah (; hbo, ''Tōrā'', "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. In that sense, Torah means the s ...
. As per the Torah, the punishment in such situations was that all men should be put to death; the women and children should be made slaves and the wealth of the whole nation should be distributed among the conquerors. In accordance with this verdict pronounced, all men were executed.
John Esposito John Louis Esposito (born May 19, 1940) is an Italian-American academic, professor of Middle Eastern and religious studies, and scholar of Islamic studies, who serves as Professor of Religion, International Affairs, and Islamic Studies at Geor ...
writes that Muhammad's use of warfare, in general, was alien neither to Arab custom nor to that of the Hebrew prophets, as both believed that God had sanctioned battle with the enemies of the Lord. No other incident of note took place regarding the Jews until the revelation of
At-Tawba At-Tawbah ( ar, ٱلتوبة, ; The Repentance), also known as Bara'ah ( ar, براءة, ; Repudiation), is the ninth chapter ('' sūrah'') of the Quran. It contains 129 verses ('' āyāt'') and is one of the last Medinan surahs. This Surah ...
, the final judgement, was declared against them: {{blockquote, Fight those who believe not in Allah or the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the Religion of Truth, from among the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizyah with willing submission and are subdued., Quran 9:29, } This directive related to both the Jews and the Christians. The punishment mentioned in these verses is a show of leniency to them because they were originally adherents to monotheism. The story holds that they did not benefit from this leniency because, after Muhammad's death, they once again resorted to
fraud In law, fraud is intentional deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right. Fraud can violate civil law (e.g., a fraud victim may sue the fraud perpetrator to avoid the fraud or recover monetary compen ...
and treachery. Consequently, the Jews of Khyber and the Christians of
Najran Najran ( ar, نجران '), is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border with Yemen. It is the capital of Najran Province. Designated as a new town, Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom; its population has risen f ...
were exiled once and for all from the Arabian peninsula by Umar. This exile actually fulfilled the following declaration of the Quran about them: {{blockquote, And had it not been that Allah had decreed exile for them, He would certainly have punished them in this world; and in the Hereafter, theirs shall be the torment of the Fire., Quran 59:3, } In contrast, when the polytheists of Arabia had been similarly subdued, it was proclaimed in
At-Tawba At-Tawbah ( ar, ٱلتوبة, ; The Repentance), also known as Bara'ah ( ar, براءة, ; Repudiation), is the ninth chapter ('' sūrah'') of the Quran. It contains 129 verses ('' āyāt'') and is one of the last Medinan surahs. This Surah ...
that in future no pact would be made with them. They would be given a final respite of four months and then they would be humiliated in retribution for their deeds and would in no way be able to escape from this punishment. After this time limit, the declaration is made in the Quran: {{blockquote, And a declaration should be made from Allah and His Messenger to these people on the day of the great Hajj that Allah is free from llobligations to these Idolaters and so is His Messenger. So if you Idolaters!repent, it is better for you, but if you turn away, then know that you cannot escape from the grasp of Allah. And give tidings Muhammadof a painful torment to these disbelievers. Except those of these Idolaters with whom you have a treaty, and who have not shown treachery in it nor have supported anyone against you. So fulfil their treaty to the end of their term. Indeed, Allah loves those who abide by the limits. Then when the sacred months [after the
Hajj The Hajj (; ar, حَجّ '; sometimes also spelled Hadj, Hadji or Haj in English) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried o ...
] have passed, kill these Idolaters wherever you find them, and capture them and besiege them, and lie in wait for them in each and every ambush. But if they repent and establish the prayer, and give Zakah, then leave them alone. Indeed, Allah is Ever-Forgiving, Most Merciful., Quran 9:3-5, } After the
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah ( ar, صُلح ٱلْحُدَيْبِيَّة, Ṣulḥ Al-Ḥudaybiyyah) was an event that took place during the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was a pivotal treaty between Muhammad, representing the state ...
, Muhammad himself singled out nations by writing letters to them. In all, they were written to the heads of eight countries. Consequently, after consolidating their rule in the Arabian peninsula, the companions launched attacks against these countries giving them two options if they wanted to avoid war: to accept
faith Faith, derived from Latin ''fides'' and Old French ''feid'', is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or In the context of religion, one can define faith as "belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion". Religious people often ...
or to become a
dhimmi ' ( ar, ذمي ', , collectively ''/'' "the people of the covenant") or () is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection. The word literally means "protected person", referring to the state's obligati ...
by paying the
Jizya Jizya ( ar, جِزْيَة / ) is a per capita yearly taxation historically levied in the form of financial charge on dhimmis, that is, permanent non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Islamic law. The jizya tax has been understood in Isl ...
. None of these nations was considered to be adherents to
polytheism Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
, otherwise, they would have been treated in the same way as the Idolaters of Arabia.


Battle of Badr

{{Main, Battle of Badr Since their emigration from Mecca (622), the Muslims in Medina had depended not on farming or trading, but on continuous raids on Meccan caravans. When word of a particularly wealthy caravan escorted by Abū Sufyān, head of the Umayyad clan, reached Muhammad, a raiding party of about 300 Muslims, to be led by Muhammad himself, was organized. By filling the wells on the caravan route near Medina with sand, the Muslims lured Abū Sufyān's army to battle at Badr, near Medina, in March 624. Despite the superior numbers of the Meccan forces (about 1,000 men), the Muslims scored a complete victory, and many prominent Meccans were killed. The success at Badr was recorded in the Qurʾān as a divine sanction of the new religion: "It was not you who slew them, it was God…in order that He might test the Believers by a gracious trial from Himself" ( Q8:17).


= Surprise attack

= The Quran commands Muslims to make a proper declaration of war prior to the commencement of military operations. Thus, surprise attacks are illegal under the Islamic jurisprudence. The Quran had similarly commanded Muhammad to give his enemies, who had violated the
Treaty of Hudaybiyyah The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah ( ar, صُلح ٱلْحُدَيْبِيَّة, Ṣulḥ Al-Ḥudaybiyyah) was an event that took place during the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was a pivotal treaty between Muhammad, representing the state ...
, a time period of four months to reconsider their position and negotiate. This rule, however, is not binding if the adversary has already started the war.Maududi (1998), p. 36 Forcible prevention of religious practice is considered as an act of war in Islam.


Peace verses

Khaled Abou El Fadl Khaled Abou el Fadl ( ar, خالد أبو الفضل, ) (born October 23, 1963) is the Omar and Azmeralda Alfi Distinguished Professor of Law at the UCLA School of Law where he has taught courses on International Human Rights, Islamic jurisprud ...
notes several verses that can be interpreted in support of tolerance and diversity – a precondition for peaceful coexistence. Quran 49:13, 11:118–9, 5:48 indicate an expectation and acceptance of diversity among human beings: that diversity is part of "divine intent":{{Cite book, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3FIT27sjWAC, title=The Place of Tolerance in Islam, last1=Abou El Fadl, first1=Khaled, last2=Lague, first2=Ian, date=2002 , publisher=Beacon Press, isbn=9780807002292, pages=15–17, language=en {{blockquote, O mankind! Lo! We have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another. Lo! the noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct. Lo! Allah is Knower, Aware., Quran 49:13 {{blockquote, And if thy Lord had willed, He verily would have made mankind one nation, yet they cease not differing, ...Save him on whom thy Lord hath mercy; and for that He did create them. ..., Quran 11:118-119 {{blockquote, And unto thee have We revealed the Scripture with the truth, confirming whatever Scripture was before it, and a watcher over it. So judge between them by that which Allah hath revealed, and follow not their desires away from the truth which hath come unto thee. For each We have appointed a divine law and a traced-out way. Had Allah willed He could have made you one community. But that He may try you by that which He hath given you (He hath made you as ye are). So vie one with another in good works. Unto Allah ye will all return, and He will then inform you of that wherein ye differ., Quran 5:48 {{blockquote, Lo! those who believe, and those who are Jews, and Sabaeans, and Christians – Whosoever believeth in Allah and the Last Day and doeth right – there shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve., Quran 5:69 Abou El Fadl also notes verses giving a "mandate in favor of peace" and commanding Muslims not to "turn away unbelievers who seek to make peace". {{blockquote, And if they incline to peace, incline thou also to it, and trust in Allah. Lo! He, even He, is the Hearer, the Knower.{{qref, 5, 69, b=y, t=y{{Cite book, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3FIT27sjWAC, title=The Place of Tolerance in Islam, last1=Abou El Fadl, first1=Khaled, last2=Lague, first2=Ian, date=2002, publisher=Beacon Press, isbn=9780807002292, page=20, language=en


Comparisons with the Bible

After studying the Quran in search of passages that recommended violence and comparing them with those of the
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of ...
, American professor
Philip Jenkins Philip Jenkins (born April 3, 1952) is a professor of history at Baylor University in the United States, and co-director for Baylor's Program on Historical Studies of Religion in the Institute for Studies of Religion. He is also the Edwin Erle Sp ...
, who is the author of books on religious violence, came to the conclusion that the Quran is, in all, "far less bloody and less violent than ... the Bible." In the Quran, he says, violence is generally recommended only as self-defense, whereas in the Bible " ere is a specific kind of warfare laid down ... which we can only call genocide." Another analysis, performed by Tom Anderson based on a text analytics software he has developed, named Odin Text, estimated that violence appears twice as much in the
Old Testament The Old Testament (often abbreviated OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew writings by the Israelites. T ...
as in the Quran.{{cite news, url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/violence-more-common-in-bible-than-quran-text-analysis-reveals-a6863381.html, date=9 February 2016, author=Samuel Osborne, website=
The Independent ''The Independent'' is a British online newspaper. It was established in 1986 as a national morning printed paper. Nicknamed the ''Indy'', it began as a broadsheet and changed to tabloid format in 2003. The last printed edition was publish ...
, title='Violence more common' in Bible than Quran, text analysis reveals


See also

* The Bible and violence *
Criticism of the Quran Criticism of the Quran is an interdisciplinary field of study concerning the factual accuracy of the claims and the moral tenability of the commands made in the Quran, the holy book of Islam. The Quran is viewed to be the scriptural foundatio ...
*
Dar al-Harb In classical Islamic law, the major divisions are ''dar al-Islam'' (lit. territory of Islam/voluntary submission to God), denoting regions where Islamic law prevails, ''dar al-sulh'' (lit. territory of treaty) denoting non-Islamic lands which have ...
* Islam and violence *
Religion and peacebuilding Religion and peacebuilding refer to the study of religion's role in the development of peace. Nathan C. Funk and Christina J. Woolner categorize these approaches into three models. The first is “peace through religion alone”. This proposes ...
*
Religious violence Religious violence covers phenomena in which religion is either the subject or the object of violent behavior. All the religions of the world contain narratives, symbols, and metaphors of violence and war. Religious violence is violence tha ...
* Quranic literalism * Quranic inerrancy


Notes

{{reflist, group="note"


References


Citations

{{Reflist, 30em


Sources

{{refbegin *{{cite web, editor-first=Muhammad M. , editor-last=Pickthall, url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2002.02.0002%3Asura%3D1, title=The Quran (English translation), publisher=Persus Digital Library {{refend {{Criticism of religion {{Use dmy dates, date=August 2020 Criticism of Islam Quran Islamic ethics