''Viola'' is a

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomencla ...

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...

s in the violet

family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Ideall ...

Violaceae Violaceae is a family of flowering plants established in 1802, consisting of about 1000 species in about 25 genera. It takes its name from the genus ''Viola'', the violets and pansies. Older classifications such as the Cronquist system placed ...

. It is the largest genus in the family, containing between 525 and 600 species. Most species are found in the

temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...

Northern Hemisphere; however, some are also found in widely divergent areas such as Hawaii, Australasia, and the Andes. Some ''Viola'' species are

perennial plant A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...

s, some are

annual plant An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seeds, within one growing season, and then dies. The length of growing seasons and period in which they take place vary according to geographical l ...

s, and a few are small

shrub A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...

s. Many species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers. In horticulture the term

pansy The garden pansy (''Viola'' × ''wittrockiana'') is a type of large-flowered hybrid plant cultivated as a garden flower. It is derived by hybridization from several species in the section ''Melanium'' ("the pansies") of the genus ''Viola'', p ...

is normally used for those multi-colored, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in

bedding Bedding, also known as bedclothes or bed linen, is the materials laid above the mattress of a bed for hygiene, warmth, protection of the mattress, and decorative effect. Bedding is the removable and washable portion of a human sleeping environme ...

. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, including the wild species.

Description

Annual Annual may refer to: *Annual publication, periodical publications appearing regularly once per year **Yearbook **Literary annual *Annual plant *Annual report *Annual giving *Annual, Morocco, a settlement in northeastern Morocco *Annuals (band), a ...

perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...

caulescent This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to botany and plants in general. Terms of plant morphology are included here as well as at the more specific Glossary of plant morphology and Glossary o ...

acaulescent This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to botany and plants in general. Terms of plant morphology are included here as well as at the more specific Glossary of plant morphology and Glossary o ...

(with or without a visible

plant stem A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. It supports leaves, flowers and fruits, transports water and dissolved substances between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem, stores nutrien ...

above the ground)

herbs In general use, herbs are a widely distributed and widespread group of plants, excluding vegetables and other plants consumed for macronutrients, with savory or aromatic properties that are used for flavoring and garnishing food, for medicinal ...

shrubs A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...

or very rarely treelets. In acaulescent

taxa In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular nam ...

the foliage and flowers appear to rise from the ground. The remainder have short stems with foliage and flowers produced in the axils of the leaves (axillary). ''Viola'' typically have heart-shaped or reniform (kidney-shaped), scalloped

leaves A leaf ( : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, ste ...

, though a number have linear or palmate leaves. The simple leaves of plants with either habit are arranged alternately; the acaulescent species produce basal rosettes. Plants always have leaves with stipules that are often leaf-like. The

flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanis ...

s of the vast majority of the species are strongly

zygomorphic Floral symmetry describes whether, and how, a flower, in particular its perianth, can be divided into two or more identical or mirror-image parts. Uncommonly, flowers may have no axis of symmetry at all, typically because their parts are spirall ...

with

bilateral symmetry Symmetry in biology refers to the symmetry observed in organisms, including plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria. External symmetry can be easily seen by just looking at an organism. For example, take the face of a human being which has a pl ...

and solitary, but occasionally form

cymes An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed on ...

. The flowers are formed from five

petals Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''corolla''. Petals are usually ...

; four are upswept or fan-shaped with two per side, and there is one, broad, lobed lower petal pointing downward. This petal may be slightly or much shorter than the others and is weakly differentiated. The shape of the petals and placement defines many species, for example, some species have a "spur" on the end of each petal while most have a spur on the lower petal. The spur may vary from scarcely

exserted This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to botany and plants in general. Terms of plant morphology are included here as well as at the more specific Glossary of plant morphology and Glossary o ...

(projecting) to very long, such as in ''

Viola rostrata ''Viola rostrata'', commonly called the long-spurred violet, is an herbaceous plant in the violet family (Violaceae). It is native to eastern North America, where it is found in Canada and the United States, primarily in the Northeastern, Midwes ...

''. Solitary flowers end long stalks with a pair of

bracteoles In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, especially one associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves. They may be smaller, larger, or of ...

. The flowers have five

sepals A sepal () is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom., p. 106 The term ''sepalum'' was coined ...

that persist after blooming, and in some species the sepals enlarge after blooming. The

corolla Corolla may refer to: *Corolla (botany), the petals of a flower, considered as a unit *Toyota Corolla, an automobile model name *Corolla (headgear) A ''corolla'' is an ancient headdress in the form of a small circlet or crown.violet or multicolored, often blue and yellow, with or without a yellow throat. The flowers have five free

stamens The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filam ...

with short free filaments that are oppressed against the

ovary The ovary is an organ in the female reproductive system that produces an ovum. When released, this travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus, where it may become fertilized by a sperm. There is an ovary () found on each side of the body. ...

, with a dorsal connective appendage that is large, entire and oblong to ovate. Only the lower two stamens are calcarate (possessing

nectary Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by plants in glands called nectaries or nectarines, either within the flowers with which it attracts pollinating animals, or by extrafloral nectaries, which provide a nutrient source to animal mutualist ...

spurs that are inserted on the lowest petal into the spur or a pouch). The styles are

filiform Filiform, thread or filament like, can refer to: * Filiform, a common term used in botany to describe a thread-like shape *Filiform, or filiform catheter, a medical device whose component parts or segments are all cylindrical and more or less un ...

(threadlike) or

clavate This glossary of entomology describes terms used in the formal study of insect species by entomologists. A–C A synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide, toxic to vertebrates. Though i ...

(clubshaped), thickened at their tip, being

globose A sphere () is a geometrical object that is a three-dimensional analogue to a two-dimensional circle. A sphere is the set of points that are all at the same distance from a given point in three-dimensional space.. That given point is the ...

rostellate This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to botany and plants in general. Terms of plant morphology are included here as well as at the more specific Glossary of plant morphology and Glossary o ...

(beaked). The stigmas are head-like, narrowed or often beaked. The flowers have a superior ovary with one cell, which has three

placentae Placentation refers to the formation, type and structure, or arrangement of the placenta. The function of placentation is to transfer nutrients, respiratory gases, and water from maternal tissue to a growing embryo, and in some instances to remove ...

, containing many ovules. After flowering,

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particul ...

capsules are produced that are thick walled, with few to many

seeds A seed is an Plant embryogenesis, embryonic plant enclosed in a testa (botany), protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, includ ...

per

carpel Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) ''pistils' ...

, and

dehisce Dehiscence is the splitting of a mature plant structure along a built-in line of weakness to release its contents. This is common among fruits, anthers and sporangia. Sometimes this involves the complete detachment of a part; structures that op ...

(split open) by way of three valves. On drying, the capsules may eject seeds with considerable force to distances of several meters. The nutlike seeds, which are obovoid to globose, are typically

arillate An aril (pronounced ), also called an arillus, is a specialized outgrowth from a seed that partly or completely covers the seed. An arillode or false aril is sometimes distinguished: whereas an aril grows from the attachment point of the see ...

(with a specialized outgrowth) and have straight

embryos An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm c ...

, flat

cotyledons A cotyledon (; ; ; , gen. (), ) is a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant, and is defined as "the embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants, one or more of which are the first to appear from a germinating seed." The numb ...

, and soft fleshy

endosperm The endosperm is a tissue produced inside the seeds of most of the flowering plants following double fertilization. It is triploid (meaning three chromosome sets per nucleus) in most species, which may be auxin-driven. It surrounds the embryo and ...

that is oily.

Phytochemistry

One characteristic of some ''Viola'' is the elusive scent of their flowers; along with

terpene Terpenes () are a class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C5H8)n for n > 1. Comprising more than 30,000 compounds, these unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced predominantly by plants, particularly conifers. Terpenes ar ...

s, a major component of the scent is a

ketone In organic chemistry, a ketone is a functional group with the structure R–C(=O)–R', where R and R' can be a variety of carbon-containing substituents. Ketones contain a carbonyl group –C(=O)– (which contains a carbon-oxygen double bo ...

compound called

ionone The ionones are a series of closely related chemical substances that are part of a group of compounds known as rose ketones, which also includes damascones and damascenones. Ionones are aroma compounds found in a variety of essential oils, incl ...

, which temporarily desensitizes the

receptors Receptor may refer to: * Sensory receptor, in physiology, any structure which, on receiving environmental stimuli, produces an informative nerve impulse *Receptor (biochemistry), in biochemistry, a protein molecule that receives and responds to a ...

of the nose, thus preventing any further scent being detected from the flower until the nerves recover.

Taxonomy

History

First formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 with 19 species, the genus ''Viola'' bears his

botanical authority In botanical nomenclature, author citation is the way of citing the person or group of people who validly published a botanical name, i.e. who first published the name while fulfilling the formal requirements as specified by the ''International Cod ...

, L. When Jussieu established the hierarchical system of families (1789), he placed Viola in the

Cisti The National Science Library (NSL), formerly known as the Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical Information or CISTI, began in 1917 as the library of the National Research Council of Canada (NRC). NRC is the Government of Canada's premier ...

(rock roses), though by 1811 he suggested Viola be separated from these. However, in 1802 Batsch had already established a separate family, which he called Violariae based on Viola as the

type genus In biological taxonomy, the type genus is the genus which defines a biological family and the root of the family name. Zoological nomenclature According to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, "The name-bearing type of a nominal ...

, with seven other genera. Although Violariae continued to be used by some authors, such as

Bentham and Hooker A taxonomic system, the Bentham & Hooker system for seed plants, was published in Bentham and Hooker's ''Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita'' in three volumes between 1862 and 1883. George Bentham (1 ...

in 1862 (as Violarieae), most authors adopted the alternative name Violaceae, first proposed by

de Lamarck Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as Lamarck (; ), was a French naturalist, biologist, academic, and soldier. He was an early proponent of the idea that biolog ...

and

de Candolle Augustin Pyramus (or Pyrame) de Candolle (, , ; 4 February 17789 September 1841) was a Swiss botanist. René Louiche Desfontaines launched de Candolle's botanical career by recommending him at a herbarium. Within a couple of years de Candolle ...

in 1805, and

Gingins Gingins is a municipality in the district of Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. History Gingins is first mentioned around 1144-59 as ''Gingins''. In October 1535, a major battle was fought in that locality between the forces of the republ ...

(1823) and Saint-Hilaire (1824).However de Candolle also used Violarieae in his 1824 ''Prodromus''.

Phylogeny

''Viola'' is one of about 25 genera and about 600 species in the large

eudicot The eudicots, Eudicotidae, or eudicotyledons are a clade of flowering plants mainly characterized by having two seed leaves upon germination. The term derives from Dicotyledons. Traditionally they were called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots ...

family

, divided into subfamilies and tribes. While most genera are

monotypic In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group (taxon) that contains only one immediately subordinate taxon. A monotypic species is one that does not include subspecies or smaller, infraspecific taxa. In the case of genera, the term "unispec ...

, ''Viola'' is a very large genus, variously circumscribed as having between 500 and 600 species. Historically it was placed in subfamily Violoideae, tribe Violeae. But these divisions have been shown to be artificial and not

monophyletic In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic gro ...

Molecular phylogenetic Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to ...

studies show that ''Viola'' occurs in Clade I of the family, as ''Viola'', '' Schweiggeria'', ''

Noisettia ''Noisettia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the violet family Violaceae, with a single known species. Description Shrubs, with oblanceolate (wider near tip) leaves. White flowers strongly zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical), in axillar ...

'' and '' Allexis'', in which ''Schweiggeria'' and ''Noisettia'' are monotypic and form a sister group to ''Viola''.

Subdivision

''Viola'' is a large genus, that has traditionally been treated in sections. One of these was that of

(1823), based on stigma morphology, with five sections (''Nomimium'', ''Dischidium'', ''Chamaemelanium'', ''Melanium'', ''Leptidium''). The extensive taxonomic studies of

Wilhelm Becker Wilhelm may refer to: People and fictional characters * William Charles John Pitcher, costume designer known professionally as "Wilhelm" * Wilhelm (name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name or surname Other uses * Mount ...

, culminating in his 1925 conspectus, resulted in 14 sections and many infrasectional groups. The largest and most diverse, being section ''Viola'', with 17 subsections. In addition to subsections,

series Series may refer to: People with the name * Caroline Series (born 1951), English mathematician, daughter of George Series * George Series (1920–1995), English physicist Arts, entertainment, and media Music * Series, the ordered sets used in ...

were also described. Alternatively, some authors have preferred to subdivide the genus into subgenera. Subsequent treatments were by Gershoy (1934) and Clausen (1964), using subsections and series. These were all based on morphological characteristics. Subsequent studies using

molecular phylogenetic Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to ...

methods, such as that of Ballard et al. (1998) have shown that many of these traditional divisions are not

, the problem being related to a high degree of

hybridization Hybridization (or hybridisation) may refer to: *Hybridization (biology), the process of combining different varieties of organisms to create a hybrid *Orbital hybridization, in chemistry, the mixing of atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals *Nu ...

. In particular section ''Nomimium'' was dismembered into several new sections and transferring part of it to section ''Viola''. Section Viola ''s. lat.'' is represented by four sections, ''Viola'' ''sensu stricto'', ''Plagiostigma'' ''s. str.'', ''Nosphinium'' ''sensu lato''. and the ''V. spathulata'' group. In that analysis, the S American sections appear to be the

basal group In phylogenetics, basal is the direction of the ''base'' (or root) of a rooted phylogenetic tree or cladogram. The term may be more strictly applied only to nodes adjacent to the root, or more loosely applied to nodes regarded as being close to th ...

s, starting with ''Rubellium'', then ''Leptidium''. However, the exact phylogenetic relationships remain unresolved, as a consequence many different taxonomic nomenclatures are in use, including groupings referred to as Grex. Marcussen et al. place the five S American sections, ''Andinium'', ''Leptidium'', ''Tridens'', ''Rubellium'' and ''Chilenium'' at the base of the phylogenetic tree, in that order. These are followed by the single Australian section, ''Erpetion'', as sister group to ''Chilenium'', the northern hemisphere sections and finally the single African section, ''V. abyssinica''. These sections are morphologically, chromosomally, and geographically distinct.

Sections

Seventeen sections are recognized, listed alphabetically (approximate no. species); * Sect. ''Andinium'' W.Becker (113) S America * Sect. ''Chamaemelanium'' Ging. '' s.lat.'' (61) N America, northeast Asia (includes ''Dischidium'', ''Orbiculares'') ** Subsect. ''Chamaemelanium'' ** Subsect. ''Nudicaules'' ** Subsect. ''Nuttalianae'' * Sect. ''Chilenium'' W.Becker (8) southern S America * Sect. ''Danxiaviola'' W. B. Liao et Q. Fan (1) China * Sect. ''Delphiniopsis'' W.Becker (3) western Eurasia: southern Spain; Balkans * Sect. ''Erpetion'' (Banks) W.Becker (11–18) eastern Australia; Tasmania * Sect. ''Leptidium'' Ging. (19) S America * Sect. ''Melanium'' Ging. (125) western Eurasia (pansies) * Sect. ''Nosphinium'' W.Becker ''s.lat.'' (31–50) N, C and northern S America; Beringia; Hawaii * Sect. nov. A (''V. abyssinica'' group) (1–3) Africa: equatorial high mountains * Sect. nov. B (''V. spathulata'' group) (7–9) western and central Asia: northern Iraq to Mongolia * Sect. ''Plagiostigma'' Godr. (120) northern hemisphere (includes ''Diffusae'') ** Grex Primulifolia * Sect. ''Rubellium'' W.Becker (3–6) S America: Chile * Sect. ''Sclerosium'' W.Becker (1–4) northeastern Africa to southwestern Asia * Sect. ''Tridens'' W.Becker (2) southern S America * Sect. ''Viola'' ''s.str.'' (''Rostellatae'' ''

nom. illeg. ''Nomen illegitimum'' (Latin for illegitimate name) is a technical term, used mainly in botany. It is usually abbreviated as ''nom. illeg.'' Although the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants uses Latin terms for other ki ...

'') (75) northern hemisphere (violets) (includes ''Repentes'') ** Subsect. ''Rostratae'' Kupffer (W.Becker) ** Subsect. ''Viola'' * Sect. ''Xylinosium'' W.Becker (3–4) Mediterranean region

Species

The genus includes dog violets, a group of scentless species which are the most common ''Viola'' in many areas, sweet violet (''

Viola odorata ''Viola odorata'' is a species of flowering plant in the genus ''Viola'', native to Europe and Asia. This small hardy herbaceous perennial is commonly known as wood violet, sweet violet, English violet, common violet, florist's violet, or garden ...

'') (named from its sweet scent), and many other species whose common name includes the word "violet". But not other "violets": Neither ''Streptocarpus'' sect. ''Saintpaulia'' ("African violets",

Gesneriaceae Gesneriaceae, the gesneriad family, is a family of flowering plants consisting of about 152 genera and ca. 3,540 species in the tropics and subtropics of the Old World (almost all Didymocarpoideae) and the New World (most Gesnerioideae), wit ...

) nor ''

Erythronium dens-canis ''Erythronium dens-canis'', the dog's-tooth-violet or dogtooth violet, is a bulbous herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the family Liliaceae, growing to . It is native to central and southern Europe from Portugal to Ukraine. It is the only ...

'' ("dogtooth violets",

Liliaceae The lily family, Liliaceae, consists of about 15 genera and 610 species of flowering plants within the order Liliales. They are monocotyledonous, perennial, herbaceous, often bulbous geophytes. Plants in this family have evolved with a fai ...

) are related to ''Viola''.

=List of selected species

= Section ''Danxiaviola'' * '' Viola hybanthoides'' Section ''Delphiniopsis'' JDCANO Viola Cazorlensis

* '' Viola cazorlensis'' * '' Viola delphinantha'' * '' Viola kosaninii'' Section ''Erpetion''

* '' Viola banksii'' – Australian native violet, ivy-leaved violet * '' Viola hederacea'' – Australian native violet, ivy-leaved violet Section ''Leptidium'' Viola stipularis-La Soufrière-Guadeloupe 1

Viola stipularis-La Soufrière-Guadeloupe 1

* '' Viola stipularis'' Section ''Melanium'' (pansies) Common Violet

* '' Viola arvensis'' – field pansy * '' Viola bicolor'' * '' Viola pedunculata'' – yellow pansy,

Pacific The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south, and is bounded by the continen ...

coast. * '' Viola bertolonii'' * '' Viola calcarata'' * ''

Viola cheiranthifolia ''Viola cheiranthifolia'' is a species of the genus ''Viola''. It is also known as the Teide violet and Teide daisy. This plant is exclusively found in the dry and stony caldera of the volcano Teide on the Canary Island of Tenerife. It survives ...

'' – Teide violet * '' Viola cornuta'' * ''

Viola lutea ''Viola lutea'', the mountain pansy, is a species of violet that grows in Europe, from the British Isles to the Balkans. Description ''Viola lutea'' grows to a height of around . Its flowers are in diameter, and are typically yellow, although ...

'' * ''

Viola tricolor ''Viola tricolor'' is a common European wild flower, growing as an annual or short-lived perennial. The species is also known as wild pansy, Johnny Jump up (though this name is also applied to similar species such as the yellow pansy), heartse ...

'' – wild pansy, heartsease Section ''Nosphinium''

* ''

Viola pedata ''Viola pedata'', the birdsfoot violet, bird's-foot violet, or mountain pansy, is a violet native to sandy areas in central and eastern North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within ...

'' Section A (''V. abyssinica'' group) Viola abyssinica mt kenya 01

* '' Viola abyssinica'' Section B (''V. spathulata'' group) * '' Viola spathulata'' Section ''Plagiostigma'' Viola epipsila 5999

* ''

Viola epipsila ''Viola epipsila'', the dwarf marsh violet, is a species of perennial forb in the genus ''Viola''. It is found in Alaska, Finland, Russia, Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided ...

'' Section ''Rubellium'' * '' Viola capillaris'' * '' Viola portalesia'' * '' Viola rubella'' Section ''Sclerosium'' * '' Viola cinerea'' Section ''Tridens'' Three-Toothed Violet (3279657452)

* '' Viola tridentata'' – mountain violet Section ''Viola'' (violets) Trip And Spring 005

* ''

Viola canina ''Viola canina'' (heath dog-violet or heath violet) is a species of the genus ''Viola'', native to Europe, where it is found in heaths, fens, and moist woodlands, especially on acidic soils. It is a herbaceous perennial plant growing to 5–15& ...

'' – heath dog violet * '' Viola hirta'' – hairy violet * ''

Viola labradorica ''Viola labradorica'', commonly known as alpine violet, American dog violet, dog violet or Labrador violet, is a perennial herbaceous flowering plant. It is native to Greenland, eastern Canada, and the eastern United States. The plant sold as '' ...

'' – alpine violet * ''

'' – sweet violet * '' Viola persicifolia'' – fen violet * ''

Viola riviniana ''Viola riviniana'', the common dog-violet, is a species of flowering plant in the family Violaceae, native to Eurasia and Africa. It is also called wood violet and dog violet. It inhabits woodland edges, grassland and shady hedge banks. It is ...

'' – common dog violet * ''

'' – long-spurred violet * ''

Viola sororia ''Viola sororia'', known commonly as the common blue violet, is a short-stemmed herbaceous perennial plant that is native to eastern North America. It is known by a number of common names, including common meadow violet, purple violet, woolly bl ...

'' – common blue violet, hooded violet Section ''Xylinosium'' Viola decumbens Kogelberg

* '' Viola decumbens''

Evolution and biogeography

One

fossil A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved in ...

seed of †''Viola rimosa'' has been extracted from

borehole A borehole is a narrow shaft bored in the ground, either vertically or horizontally. A borehole may be constructed for many different purposes, including the extraction of water ( drilled water well and tube well), other liquids (such as petro ...

samples of the

Middle Miocene The Middle Miocene is a sub-epoch of the Miocene Epoch made up of two stages: the Langhian and Serravallian stages. The Middle Miocene is preceded by the Early Miocene. The sub-epoch lasted from 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma to 11.608 ± 0.005 Ma (million ...

fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin,

West Carpathians The Western Carpathians are a mountain range and geomorphological province that forms the western part of the Carpathian Mountains. The mountain belt stretches from the Low Beskids range of the Eastern Carpathians along the border of Poland wi ...

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populou ...

. The genus is thought to have arisen in S America, most likely the Andes.

Genetics

Habitat fragmentation Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological process ...

has been shown to have minimal effect on the genetic diversity and gene flow of the North American woodland violet ''Viola pubescens.'' This may be partially attributed to the ability of ''Viola pubescens'' to continue to persist within a largely agricultural matrix. This trend of unexpectedly high genetic diversity is also observed in ''Viola palmensis'', a Canary Island endemic known only from a 15 square kilometer range on La palma island. High levels of genetic diversity within these species indicate that these plants are outcrossing, even though many violet species can produce many clonal offspring throughout the year via cleistogamous flowers. Plants that produce copious amounts of clonal seeds from cleistogamous flowers often experience increased levels of inbreeding. These reportedly high rates of outcrossing and genetic diversity indicate that these violets are strong competitors for pollinators during the early spring when they are in bloom and that those pollinators can travel considerable distances between often fragmented populations.

Distribution and habitat

The worldwide northern temperate distribution of the genus distinguishes it from the remaining largely tropical Violaceae genera, restricted to either Old World or New World species, while in the tropics the distribution is primarily in high mountainous areas. Centres of diversity occur mainly in the northern hemisphere, in mountainous regions of eastern Asia, Melanesia, and southern Europe, but also occur in the Andes and the southern Patagonian cone of South America. One of the highest species concentrations is in the former USSR. Australia is home to a number of ''Viola'' species, including '' Viola hederacea'', '' Viola betonicifolia'' and '' Viola banksii'', first collected by

Joseph Banks Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, (19 June 1820) was an English naturalist, botanist, and patron of the natural sciences. Banks made his name on the 1766 natural-history expedition to Newfoundland and Labrador. He took part in Captain James C ...

and

Daniel Solander Daniel Carlsson Solander or Daniel Charles Solander (19 February 1733 – 13 May 1782) was a Swedish naturalist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus. Solander was the first university-educated scientist to set foot on Australian soil. Biography ...

on the

Cook Cook or The Cook may refer to: Food preparation * Cooking, the preparation of food * Cook (domestic worker), a household staff member who prepares food * Cook (professional), an individual who prepares food for consumption in the food industry * ...

voyage to

Botany Bay Botany Bay (Dharawal: ''Kamay''), an open oceanic embayment, is located in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, south of the Sydney central business district. Its source is the confluence of the Georges River at Taren Point and the Cooks Ri ...

Ecology

''Viola'' species are used as food plants by the

larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. Th ...

e of some

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order of insects that includes butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 families and 46 superfamilies, 10 percent of the total described specie ...

species, including the

giant leopard moth The giant leopard moth (''Hypercompe scribonia'') is a moth of the family Erebidae. They are distributed through North America from southern Ontario, and southern and eastern United States through New England, Mexico and south to Colombia. The ...

large yellow underwing The large yellow underwing (''Noctua pronuba'') is a moth, the type species for the family Noctuidae. It is an abundant species throughout the Palearctic realm, one of the most common and most familiar moths of the region. In some years the speci ...

, lesser broad-bordered yellow underwing,

high brown fritillary ''Fabriciana adippe'', the high brown fritillary, is a large and brightly colored butterfly of the family Nymphalidae, native to Europe and across the Palearctic to Japan. It is known for being Great Britain's most threatened butterfly and is li ...

small pearl-bordered fritillary ''Boloria selene'', known in Europe as the small pearl-bordered fritillary and in North America as the silver-bordered fritillary, is a species of butterfly of the family Nymphalidae. It is found across Europe, Asia and North America, and feeds ...

pearl-bordered fritillary The pearl-bordered fritillary (''Boloria euphrosyne'') is a butterfly of the family Nymphalidae found in Europe and through Russia across the Palearctic to the north of Kazakhstan. Description The adult butterfly is orange with black spots on ...

, regal fritillary,

cardinal Cardinal or The Cardinal may refer to: Animals * Cardinal (bird) or Cardinalidae, a family of North and South American birds **'' Cardinalis'', genus of cardinal in the family Cardinalidae **'' Cardinalis cardinalis'', or northern cardinal, t ...

, and

Setaceous Hebrew character The setaceous Hebrew character (''Xestia c-nigrum'') is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae''. It is found in the Palearctic realm. It is a common speci ...

. The larvae of many fritilary butterfly species use violets as an obligate host plant, although these butterflies do not always ovaposit directly onto violets. While the ecology of this genera is extremely diverse, violets are mainly pollinated by members within the orders

Diptera Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced ...

and

Hymenoptera Hymenoptera is a large order of insects, comprising the sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. Over 150,000 living species of Hymenoptera have been described, in addition to over 2,000 extinct ones. Many of the species are parasitic. Females typic ...

. Showy flowers are produced in early spring, and clonal

cleistogamous Cleistogamy is a type of automatic self-pollination of certain plants that can propagate by using non-opening, self-pollinating flowers. Especially well known in peanuts, peas, and pansies, this behavior is most widespread in the grass family. H ...

flowers are produced from late spring until the end of the growing season under favorable conditions. Cleistogamy allows plants to produce offspring year round and have more chances for establishment. This system is especially important in violets, as these plants are often weak competitors for pollination due to their small size. Many violet species exhibit two modes of seed dispersal. Once seed capsules have matured, seeds are dispelled around the plant through explosive dehiscence. ''Viola pedata'' seeds have been reported being dispersed distances of up to 5 meters away from the parent plant. Often, seeds are then further dispersed by ants through a process called

myrmecochory Myrmecochory ( (sometimes myrmechory); from grc, μύρμηξ, mýrmēks ("ant") and ''khoreíā'' ("circular dance") is seed dispersal by ants, an ecologically significant ant–plant interaction with worldwide distribution. Most myrmeco ...

. Violets whose seeds are dispersed this way have specialized structures on the exterior of the seeds called

elaiosome Elaiosomes ( grc, ἔλαιον ''élaion'' "oil" + ''sóma'' "body") are fleshy structures that are attached to the seeds of many plant species. The elaiosome is rich in lipids and proteins, and may be variously shaped. Many plants have elai ...

s. This interaction allows violet seed to germinate and establish in a protected, stable environment. Many violet seeds exhibit physiological

dormancy Dormancy is a period in an organism's life cycle when growth, development, and (in animals) physical activity are temporarily stopped. This minimizes metabolic activity and therefore helps an organism to conserve energy. Dormancy tends to be clos ...

and require some period of cold stratification to induce germination under ''ex situ'' conditions. Rates of germination are often quite poor, especially when seeds are stored for extended periods of time. In North American

habitat restoration Restoration ecology is the scientific study supporting the practice of ecological restoration, which is the practice of renewing and restoring degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystems and habitats in the environment by active human interrup ...

, native violets are in high demand due to their relationship with the aforementioned fritillary butterflies. Violet species occupy a diverse array of habitats, from bogs ('' Viola lanceolata'') to dry hill prairies ('' V. pedata'') to woodland understories ('' V. labradorica''). While many of these species are indicators of high quality habitat, some violets are capable of thriving in a human altered landscape. Two species of zinc violet ('' V. calaminaria'' and '' V. guestphalica'') are capable of living in soils severely contaminated with heavy metals. Many violets form relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and in the case of the zinc violets, this allows them to tolerate such highly contaminated soils. Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring and summer. ''Viola'' are most often spring-blooming with chasmogamous flowers that have well developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated

flowers in summer and autumn that do not open and lack petals. In some species the showy chasmogamous flowers are infertile (e.g.,''

'').

Horticultural uses

The international registration authority for the genus is the

American Violet Society American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...

, where growers register new Viola

cultivars A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...

. A coding system is used for cultivar description of ten horticultural divisions, such as Violet (Vt) and Violetta (Vtta). Examples include ''Viola'' 'Little David' (Vtta) and ''Viola'' 'Königin Charlotte' (Vt). In this system violets (Vt) are defined as " stoloniferous perennials with small, highly fragrant, self-coloured purple, blue or white flowers in late winter and early spring".

Species and cultivars

Viola x hybrida 'Clear Crystals Apricot', SC, Vic

Many species, varieties and cultivars are grown in gardens for their ornamental flowers. In horticulture the term

is normally used for those multi-colored, large-flowered cultivars which are raised annually or biennially from seed and used extensively in

. The terms viola and violet are normally reserved for small-flowered annuals or perennials, including the wild species. Cultivars of '' Viola cornuta'', ''

Viola cucullata ''Viola cucullata'', the hooded blue violet, marsh blue violet or purple violet, is a species of the genus ''Viola'' native to eastern North America, from Newfoundland west to Ontario and Minnesota, and south to Georgia. It is a recipient of the ...

'', and ''

'', are commonly grown from seed. Other species often grown include ''

'', ''

'', and '' Viola rotundifolia''. The modern garden

(''V. ''×'' wittrockiana'') is a plant of complex hybrid origin involving at least three species, '' V. tricolor'' (wild pansy or heartsease), '' V. altaica'', and '' V. lutea'' (mountain pansy). The hybrid horned pansy (''V.'' × ''williamsii'') originates from hybridization involving

garden pansy The garden pansy (''Viola'' × ''wittrockiana'') is a type of large-flowered hybrid plant cultivated as a garden flower. It is derived by hybridization from several species in the section ''Melanium'' ("the pansies") of the genus ''Viola'', p ...

and '' Viola cornuta''.

Bedding plants

In 2005 in the United States, ''Viola'' cultivars (including pansies) were one of the top three

plant crops and 111 million dollars worth of flats of ''Viola'' were produced for the bedding flower market. Pansies and violas used for bedding are generally raised from seed, and

F1 hybrid An F1 hybrid (also known as filial 1 hybrid) is the first filial generation of offspring of distinctly different parental types. F1 hybrids are used in genetics, and in selective breeding, where the term F1 crossbreed may be used. The term is somet ...

seed strains have been developed which produce compact plants of reasonably consistent flower coloring and appearance. Bedding plants are usually discarded after one growing season.

Perennial cultivars

Viola cultivars at BBC Gardeners' World - 20110616

There are hundreds of perennial viola and violetta cultivars; many of these do not breed true from seed and therefore have to be propagated from cuttings. Violettas can be distinguished from violas by the lack of ray markings on their petals. The following cultivars, of mixed or uncertain parentage, have gained the

Royal Horticultural Society The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), founded in 1804 as the Horticultural Society of London, is the UK's leading gardening charity. The RHS promotes horticulture through its five gardens at Wisley (Surrey), Hyde Hall (Essex), Harlow Carr (N ...

Award of Garden Merit The Award of Garden Merit (AGM) is a long-established annual award for plants by the British Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). It is based on assessment of the plants' performance under UK growing conditions. History The Award of Garden Merit ...

: * 'Aspasia' * 'Clementina' * 'Huntercombe Purple' * 'Jackanapes' * 'Molly Sanderson' * 'Moonlight' * 'Nellie Britton' Other popular examples include: *'Ardross Gem' (viola) *'Blackjack' *'Buttercup' (violetta) *'Columbine' (viola) *'Dawn' (violetta) *'Etain' (viola) *'Irish Molly' (viola) *'Maggie Mott' (viola) *'Martin' (viola) *'Rebecca' (violetta) *'Vita' (viola) *'Zoe' (violetta)

Other uses

Culinary

When newly opened, ''Viola'' flowers may be used to decorate salads or in stuffings for poultry or fish. Soufflés, cream, and similar desserts can be flavoured with essence of ''Viola'' flowers. The young leaves are edible raw or cooked as a somewhat bland leaf vegetable. The flowers and leaves of the cultivar 'Rebecca', one of the Violetta violets, have a distinct vanilla flavor with hints of wintergreen. The pungent perfume of some varieties of ''V. odorata'' adds inimitable sweetness to desserts, fruit salads, and teas while the mild pea flavor of ''V. tricolor'' combines equally well with sweet or savory foods, like grilled meats and steamed vegetables. The heart-shaped leaves of ''V. odorata'' provide a free source of greens throughout a long growing season, while the petals are used for fragrant flavoring in milk puddings and ice cream or in salads and as garnishes. A

candied Candied fruit, also known as glacé fruit, is whole fruit, smaller pieces of fruit, or pieces of peel, placed in heated sugar syrup, which absorbs the moisture from within the fruit and eventually preserves it. Depending on the size and type of ...

violet or crystallized violet is a flower, usually of ''Viola odorata'', preserved by a coating of egg white and crystallised sugar. Alternatively, hot syrup is poured over the fresh flower (or the flower is immersed in the syrup) and stirred until the sugar recrystallizes and has dried. This method is still used for

rose A rose is either a woody perennial flowering plant of the genus ''Rosa'' (), in the family Rosaceae (), or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred species and tens of thousands of cultivars. They form a group of plants that can be ...

petals and was applied to

orange Orange most often refers to: *Orange (fruit), the fruit of the tree species '' Citrus'' × ''sinensis'' ** Orange blossom, its fragrant flower *Orange (colour), from the color of an orange, occurs between red and yellow in the visible spectrum * ...

flowers in the past (when almonds or orange peel are treated this way they are called pralines). Candied violets are still made commercially in

Toulouse Toulouse ( , ; oc, Tolosa ) is the prefecture of the French department of Haute-Garonne and of the larger region of Occitania. The city is on the banks of the River Garonne, from the Mediterranean Sea, from the Atlantic Ocean and from Par ...

, France, where they are known as ''violettes de Toulouse''. They are used as decorating cakes or trifles or included in aromatic desserts. The French are also known for their violet

syrup In cooking, a syrup (less commonly sirup; from ar, شراب; , beverage, wine and la, sirupus) is a condiment that is a thick, viscous liquid consisting primarily of a solution of sugar in water, containing a large amount of dissolved sugar ...

, most commonly made from an extract of violets. In the United States, this French violet syrup is used to make violet

scone A scone is a baked good, usually made of either wheat or oatmeal with baking powder as a leavening agent, and baked on sheet pans. A scone is often slightly sweetened and occasionally glazed with egg wash. The scone is a basic component of th ...

s and

marshmallow Marshmallow (, ) is a type of confectionery that is typically made from sugar, water and gelatin whipped to a solid-but-soft consistency. It is used as a filling in baking or normally molded into shapes and coated with corn starch. The sugar ...

s. ''Viola'' essence flavours the

liqueurs Liqueurs are alcoholic beverages that are bottled with added sugar and have added flavours that are usually derived from fruits, herbs, or nuts. Liqueurs are distinct from eaux-de-vie, fruit brandy, and flavored liquors, which contain no ad ...

Creme Yvette Creme Yvette, also called Creme d'Yvette or Creme de Yvette, is a proprietary liqueur made from parma violet petals with blackberries, red raspberries, wild strawberries and cassis, honey, orange peel and vanilla. It was once manufactured by Cha ...

, Creme de Violette, and Parfait d'Amour. It is also used in confectionery, such as

Parma Violets Parma Violets are a British violet-flavoured tablet confectionery manufactured by the Derbyshire company Swizzels Matlow, named after the Parma violet variety of the flower. The sweets are hard, biconcave disc-shaped sweets, similar to ...

and C. Howard's Violet candies.

Medicinal

Many ''Viola'' species contain

antioxidant Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit oxidation, a chemical reaction that can produce free radicals. This can lead to polymerization and other chain reactions. They are frequently added to industrial products, such as fuels and lubricants, ...

s called

anthocyanin Anthocyanins (), also called anthocyans, are water-soluble vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue, or black. In 1835, the German pharmacist Ludwig Clamor Marquart gave the name Anthokyan to a chemical com ...

s. Fourteen anthocyanins from ''V. yedoensis'' and ''V. prionantha'' have been identified. Some anthocyanins show strong antioxidant activities. Most violas tested and many other plants of the family Violaceae contain cyclotides, which have a diverse range of ''

in vitro ''In vitro'' (meaning in glass, or ''in the glass'') studies are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in biology and ...

'' biological activities when isolated from the plant, including uterotonic, anti-HIV, antimicrobial, and insecticidal activities. ''Viola canescens,'' a species from India, exhibited ''in vitro'' activity against ''

Trypanosoma cruzi ''Trypanosoma cruzi'' is a species of parasitic euglenoids. Among the protozoa, the trypanosomes characteristically bore tissue in another organism and feed on blood (primarily) and also lymph. This behaviour causes disease or the likelihood of ...

''. Viola has been evaluated in different clinical indications in human studies. A double blind clinical trial showed that the adjuvant use of ''Viola odorata'' syrup with short-acting β-agonists can improve the

cough A cough is a sudden expulsion of air through the large breathing passages that can help clear them of fluids, irritants, foreign particles and microbes. As a protective reflex, coughing can be repetitive with the cough reflex following three phas ...

suppression in children with

asthma Asthma is a long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, co ...

. In another study intranasal administration of ''Viola odorata'' extract oil showed to be effective in patients with

insomnia Insomnia, also known as sleeplessness, is a sleep disorder in which people have trouble sleeping. They may have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep as long as desired. Insomnia is typically followed by daytime sleepiness, low energy, ...

. Topical use of an herbal formulation containing ''Viola tricolor'' extract also showed promising effects in patients with mild-to-moderate

atopic dermatitis Atopic dermatitis (AD), also known as atopic eczema, is a long-term type of inflammation of the skin (dermatitis). It results in itchy, red, swollen, and cracked skin. Clear fluid may come from the affected areas, which often thickens over time ...

Perfume

'' is used as a source for scents in the perfume industry. Violet is known to have a 'flirty' scent as its fragrance comes and goes.

Ionone The ionones are a series of closely related chemical substances that are part of a group of compounds known as rose ketones, which also includes damascones and damascenones. Ionones are aroma compounds found in a variety of essential oils, incl ...

is present in the flowers, which turns off the ability for humans to smell the fragrant compound for moments at a time.

Cultural associations

Birth

Violet is the traditional

birth flower Floriography (language of flowers) is a means of cryptological communication through the use or arrangement of flowers. Meaning has been attributed to flowers for thousands of years, and some form of floriography has been practiced in tradition ...

for February in English tradition.

Geographical territories

In the United States, the common blue violet ''

'' is the state flower of

Illinois Illinois ( ) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolitan areas include, Peoria and Rockfo ...

, Rhode Island,

New Jersey New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware ...

and

Wisconsin Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michi ...

, In Canada, the ''

'' is the provincial flower of

New Brunswick New Brunswick (french: Nouveau-Brunswick, , locally ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. It is the only province with both English and ...

adopted in 1936 In the United Kingdom, ''

'' is the county flower of

Lincolnshire Lincolnshire (abbreviated Lincs.) is a county in the East Midlands of England, with a long coastline on the North Sea to the east. It borders Norfolk to the south-east, Cambridgeshire to the south, Rutland to the south-west, Leicestershire ...

Lesbian and bisexual culture

Violets became symbolically associated with love between women. This connection originates from fragments of a poem by

Sappho Sappho (; el, Σαπφώ ''Sapphō'' ; Aeolic Greek ''Psápphō''; c. 630 – c. 570 BC) was an Archaic Greek poet from Eresos or Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. Sappho is known for her lyric poetry, written to be sung while accompanied ...

about a lost love, in which she describes her as "Close by my side you put around yourself any wreathsof violets and roses." In another poem, Sappho describes her lost love as wearing "violet tiaras, braided rosebuds, dill and crocus twined around" her neck. In 1926, one of the first plays to involve a lesbian relationship, '' La Prisonnière'' by

Édouard Bourdet Édouard Bourdet (Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 26 October 1887 – Paris, 17 January 1945) was a 20th-century French playwright. He was married to the poet, Catherine Pozzi; their son was Claude Bourdet. Plays *1910: ''Le Rubicon'' *1912: ''La Cage o ...

, used a bouquet of violets to signify lesbian love.

Tributes

Violets, and badges depicting them, were sold in fund-raising efforts in Australia and New Zealand on and around Violet Day in commemoration of the lost soldiers of World War I.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Books

* * * * * * * , ''see also''

The Oxford Companion to Food ''The Oxford Companion to Food'' is an encyclopedia about food. It was edited by Alan Davidson and published by Oxford University Press in 1999. It was also issued in softcover under the name ''The Penguin Companion to Food''. The second and t ...

* * * , * * , ;Historical sources * * * * * * * , ''see also''

Species Plantarum ' (Latin for "The Species of Plants") is a book by Carl Linnaeus, originally published in 1753, which lists every species of plant known at the time, classified into genera. It is the first work to consistently apply binomial names and was the ...

Articles

* } * * * * , ''also at'
BHL
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Phylogeny and taxonomy

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Encyclopaedias

* * *

Websites

* (''taxonomy'') ** * * * * * * * ;Databases * * * * * * , * * * ;Images * * * * ''includes maps'' {{Taxonbar, from=Q146095 Malpighiales genera Garden plants Leaf vegetables Medicinal plants

Description

Phytochemistry

Taxonomy

History

Phylogeny

Subdivision

Sections

Species

=List of selected species

Evolution and biogeography

Genetics

Distribution and habitat

Ecology

Horticultural uses

Species and cultivars

Bedding plants

Perennial cultivars

Other uses

Culinary

Medicinal

Perfume

Cultural associations

Birth

Geographical territories

Lesbian and bisexual culture

Tributes

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Books

Articles

Phylogeny and taxonomy

Encyclopaedias

Websites