Vedantic

''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, the speculations and philosophies contained in the Upanishads, specifically, knowledge and liberation. Vedanta contains many sub-traditions, all of which are based on a common group of texts called the "Three Sources" ('' prasthānatrayī''): ''the Upanishads'', the ''Brahma Sutras'' and the ''Bhagavad Gita''.

All Vedanta traditions contain extensive discussions on ontology, soteriology and epistemology, though there is much disagreement among the various schools. The main traditions of Vedanta are: ''Advaita'' (non-dualism), ''Bhedabheda'' (difference and non-difference), ''Suddhadvaita'' (pure non-dualism), ''Tattvavada (Dvaita)'' (dualism), and ''Vishishtadvaita'' (qualified non-dualism). Modern developments in Vedanta include Neo-Vedanta, and the growth of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya.

Most major Vedanta schools, except Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Vedanta, are related to Vaishnavism and emphasize devotion (Bhakti yoga) to God, understood as being Vishnu, Krishna or a related manifestation. Advaita Vedanta meanwhile, emphasizes jñana (knowledge) and jñana yoga over theistic devotion. While Advaita monism has attracted considerable attention in the West due to the influence of modern Hindus like Swami Vivekananda and Ramana Maharshi, most of the other Vedanta traditions focus on Vaishnava theology.

Etymology and nomenclature

The word ''Vedanta'' is made of two words :
* Veda (वेद) - refers to the four sacred vedic texts.
* Anta (अंत) - this word means "End".

The word ''Vedanta'' literally means the ''end of the Vedas'' and originally referred to the ''Upanishads''. Vedanta is concerned with the or knowledge section of the vedas which is called the ''Upanishads''. The denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened to include the various philosophical traditions based on to the '' Prasthanatrayi''.

The ''Upanishads'' may be regarded as the end of ''Vedas'' in different senses:
# These were the last literary products of the Vedic period.
# These mark the culmination of Vedic thought.
# These were taught and debated last, in the ''Brahmacharya'' (student) stage.

Vedanta is one of the six orthodox (''āstika'') schools of Indian philosophy. It is also called ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', which means the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry'; and is often contrasted with '' Pūrva Mīmāṃsā'', the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. ''Pūrva Mīmāṃsā'' deals with the ''karmakāṇḍa'' or ritualistic section (the ''Samhitas'') in the ''Vedas''.

Vedanta philosophy

Common features

Despite their differences, all schools of Vedanta share some common features:
* Vedanta is the pursuit of knowledge into the ''Brahman'' and the '' Ātman''.
* The '' Upaniṣads'', the ''Bhagavadgītā'' and the ''Brahma Sūtras'' constitute the basis of Vedanta (known as the three canonical sources).
* Scripture (Sruti Śabda) is main reliable source of knowledge (''pramana'' - ''Ishvara'' (God), exists as the unchanging material cause and instrumental cause of the world. The only exception here is that Dvaita Vedanta does not hold Brahman to be the material cause, but only the efficient cause.
* The self ('' Ātman'' or ''Jiva'') is the agent of its own acts (''karma'') and the recipient of the consequences of these actions.
* Belief in rebirth ('' samsara'') and the desirability of release from the cycle of rebirths ''(moksha)''.
* Rejection of Buddhism and Jainism and conclusions of the other Vedic schools (Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga, and, to some extent, the Purva Mimamsa).

Scripture

The main '' Upaniṣhads'', the ''Bhagavadgītā'' and the ''Brahma Sūtras'' are the foundational scriptures in Vedanta. All schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting these texts, collectively called the '' Prasthānatrayī'', literally, ''three sources''.

# The '' Upaniṣads'', or ''Śruti prasthāna''; considered the '' Sruti'', the "heard" (and repeated) foundation of Vedanta.
# The ''Brahma Sūtras'', or ''Nyaya prasthana'' / ''Yukti prasthana''; considered the reason-based foundation of Vedanta.
# The ''Bhagavadgītā'', or ''Smriti prasthāna''; considered the ''Smriti'' (remembered tradition) foundation of Vedanta.

All major Vedantic teachers, including Shankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, and Vallabha composed commentaries on these three sources. The ''Brahma Sūtras'' of '' Badarayana'' contain a synthesis of the teachings of the ''Upaniṣads'', which contain a many diverse doctrines and teachings. Other such Vedantic syntheses may have existed, but only the ''Brahma Sūtras'' survive. The ''Bhagavadgītā'', due to its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic thought, has also played a major role in Vedantic thought.

All Vedāntins agree that scripture (śruti) is the only means of knowing (pramāṇa) regarding spiritual matters (which are beyond perception and inference).Bartley, Christopher (2015). ''An Introduction to Indian Philosophy'' ''Hindu and Buddhist Ideas from Original Sources'', p. 176. Bloomsbury Academic.

This is explained by Rāmānuja as follows:

A theory that rests exclusively on human concepts may at some other time or place be refuted by arguments devised by cleverer people.... The conclusion is that with regard to supernatural matters, Scripture alone is the epistemic authority and that reasoning is to be used only in support of Scripture’ �rī Bhāṣya 2.1.12

For specific sub-schools of Vedanta, other texts may be equally important. For example, for Advaita Vedanta, the works of Adi Shankara are central. For the Theistic Vaishnava schools of Vedanta, the ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa'' is particularly important. The ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa'' is one of the most widely commented upon works in Vedanta. This text is so central to the Krishna centered Vedanta schools that the Vedantin theologian Vallabha added the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as a fourth text to the praṣṭhāna traya (three classic scriptures of Vedanta).

Metaphysics

Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental metaphysical categories and the relations between the three.
# ''Brahman'' or ''Ishvara'': the ultimate reality
# '' Ātman'' or '' Jivātman'': the individual soul, self
# '' Prakriti''/''Jagat'': the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter

Brahman / Ishvara – Conceptions of the Supreme Reality

Shankara, in formulating Advaita, talks of two conceptions of ''Brahman'': The higher ''Brahman'' as undifferentiated Being, and a lower ''Brahman'' endowed with qualities as the creator of the universe.
* ''Parā'' or Higher ''Brahman'': The undifferentiated, absolute, infinite, transcendental, supra-relational Brahman beyond all thought and speech is defined as ''parā'' ''Brahman'', ''nirviśeṣa'' Brahman or ''nirguṇa'' Brahman and is the Absolute of metaphysics.
* ''Aparā'' or Lower ''Brahman'': The ''Brahman'' with qualities defined as ''aparā'' ''Brahman'' or ''saguṇa'' ''Brahman''. The ''saguṇa'' ''Brahman'' is endowed with attributes and represents the personal God of religion.

Ramanuja, in formulating Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, rejects ''nirguṇa'' – that the undifferentiated Absolute is inconceivable – and adopts a theistic interpretation of the ''Upanishads'', accepts ''Brahman'' as ''Ishvara'', the personal God who is the seat of all auspicious attributes, as the One reality. The God of Vishishtadvaita is accessible to the devotee, yet remains the Absolute, with differentiated attributes.

Madhva, in expounding Dvaita philosophy, maintains that ''Vishnu'' is the supreme God, thus identifying the ''Brahman'', or absolute reality, of the ''Upanishads'' with a personal god, as Ramanuja had done before him. Nimbarka, in his dvaitadvata philosophy, accepted the ''Brahman'' both as ''nirguṇa'' and as ''saguṇa''. Vallabha, in his shuddhadvaita philosophy, not only accepts the triple ontological essence of the ''Brahman'', but also His manifestation as personal God (''Ishvara''), as matter and as individual souls.

Relation between Brahman and Jiva / Atman

The schools of Vedanta differ in their conception of the relation they see between ''Ātman'' / ''Jivātman'' and ''Brahman'' / ''Ishvara'':
* According to Advaita Vedanta, ''Ātman'' is identical with ''Brahman'' and there is no difference.
* According to Vishishtadvaita, ''Jīvātman'' is different from ''Ishvara'', though eternally connected with Him as His mode. The oneness of the Supreme Reality is understood in the sense of an organic unity (''vishistaikya''). ''Brahman'' / ''Ishvara'' alone, as organically related to all ''Jīvātman'' and the material universe is the one Ultimate Reality.
* According to Dvaita, the ''Jīvātman'' is totally and always different from ''Brahman'' / ''Ishvara''.
* According to Shuddhadvaita (pure monism), the ''Jīvātman'' and ''Brahman'' are identical; both, along with the changing empirically observed universe being Krishna.

Epistemology

Pramana

''Pramāṇa'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण) literally means "proof", "that which is the means of valid knowledge". It refers to epistemology in Indian philosophies, and encompasses the study of reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of Pramana