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Upper German (german: Oberdeutsch ) is a family of High German dialects spoken primarily in the southern German-speaking area ().


History

In the
Old High German Old High German (OHG; german: Althochdeutsch (Ahd.)) is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally covering the period from around 750 to 1050. There is no standardised or supra-regional form of German at this period, and Old Hig ...
time, only Alemannic and
Bairisch Bavarian (german: Bairisch , Bavarian: ''Boarisch'') or alternately Austro-Bavarian, is a West Germanic language, part of the Upper German family, together with Alemannic and East Franconian. Bavarian is spoken by approximately 12 million peo ...
are grouped as Upper German. In the
Middle High German Middle High German (MHG; german: Mittelhochdeutsch (Mhd.)) is the term for the form of German spoken in the High Middle Ages. It is conventionally dated between 1050 and 1350, developing from Old High German and into Early New High German. Hig ...
time, East Franconian and sometimes
South Franconian South Franconian (german: Südfränkisch) or South Rhine Franconian (german: Südrheinfränkisch) is an Upper German dialect which is spoken in the northernmost part of Baden-Württemberg in Germany, around Karlsruhe, Mosbach and Heilbronn. Lik ...
are added to this.
Swabian Swabian or Schwabian, or ''variation'', may refer to: * the German region of Swabia (German: "''Schwaben''") * Swabian German, a dialect spoken in Baden-Württemberg in south-west Germany and adjoining areas (German:"''Schwäbisch''") * Danube S ...
splits off from Alemannic due to the New High German diphthongisation ().Frank Janle, Hubert Klausmann: ''Dialekt und Standardsprache in der Deutschdidaktik: Eine Einführung.'' Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, Tübingen, 2020, p. 30f. (chapter ''3.1.2 Die Gliederung der Dialekte'')


Family tree

Upper German proper comprises the Alemannic and Bavarian dialect groups. Furthermore, the
High Franconian High Franconian or Upper Franconian (german: Oberfränkisch) is a part of High German consisting of East Franconian and South Franconian.Noble, Cecil A. M. (1983). ''Modern German Dialects.'' New York / Berne / Frankfort on the Main, Peter Lang, ...
dialects, spoken up to the Speyer line isogloss in the north, are often also included in the Upper German dialect group. Whether they should be included as part of Upper German or instead classified as
Central German Central German or Middle German (german: mitteldeutsche Dialekte, mitteldeutsche Mundarten, Mitteldeutsch) is a group of High German dialects spoken from the Rhineland in the west to the former eastern territories of Germany. Central German d ...
is an open question, as they have traits of both Upper and Central German and are frequently described as a transitional zone. Hence, either scheme can be encountered. Erzgebirgisch, usually lumped in with
Upper Saxon Upper Saxon (german: Obersächsisch, ; ) is an East Central German language spoken in much of the modern German state of Saxony and in adjacent parts of southeastern Saxony-Anhalt and eastern Thuringia. As of the early 21st century, it's mo ...
on geographical grounds, is closer to East Franconian linguistically, especially the western dialects of Erzgebirgisch.


Roughly

Upper German is divided roughly in multiple different ways, for example in:''Frühneuhochdeutsches Wörterbuch. Herausgegeben von Robert R. Anderson, Ulrich Goebel, Oskar Reichmann. Band 1. Bearbeitet von Oskar Reichmann.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York, 1989, p. 118f., noting that the dialect borders in the Early New High German and later New High German times have not changed much and giving: * „Nordoberdeutsch“: „Südfränkisch“, „Ostfränkisch“ (including „Nürnbergisch“) * „Westoberdeutsch“: „Alemannisch“ („Niederalemannisch“, including „Elsässisch“ and „östliches Niederalemannisch“; „Hochalemannisch“, including „Westhochalemannisch“ and „Osthochalemannisch“), „Schwäbisch“ * „Ostoberdeutsch“: „nördliches Ostoberdeutsch, Nordbairisch“, „mittleres Ostoberdeutsch, Mittelbairisch“ (including „Südmittelbairisch“), „südliches Ostoberdeutsch, Südbairisch“ (including „Tirolisch“) Similar in: ''Oskar Reichmann, Klaus-Peter Wegera (Hrsg.): Frühneuhochdeutsche Grammatik von Robert Peter Ebert, Oskar Reichmann, Hans-Joachim Solms und Klaus-Peter Wegera.'' Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen, 1993, p. 5f. * North Upper German (): East Franconian and South Franconian * West Upper German (): Swabian and Alemannic * East Upper German (): Bavarian (North, Middle and South Bavarian) or: * West Upper German: Alemannic (Low and Highest Alemannic, Swabian), East Franconian * East Upper German: Bavarian (North, Middle and South Bavarian) or: * West Upper German: Alemannic in the broad sense (i.e. Alemannic in the strict sense, including Alsatian, and Swabian), South Franconian, East Franconian * East Upper German: Bavarian (North, Middle and South Bavarian) or writing dialects (, ) in the Early New High German times: * West Upper German: South Franconian, Swabian, Alemannic * East Upper German: Bavarian, East Franconian In English there is also a grouping into: * South Upper German: South and Middle Alemannic, South Bavarian, South Middle Bavarian "on the east bank of the Lech" – where the "state of initial consonants is largely that of Old High German" * North Upper German: North Alemannic, North Bavarian, Middle Bavarian – which "have allegedly weaking many initial fortes" Attempts to group East Franconian and North Bavarian together as ''North Upper German'' are not justified and were not sustainable.


Detailed

*
High Franconian High Franconian or Upper Franconian (german: Oberfränkisch) is a part of High German consisting of East Franconian and South Franconian.Noble, Cecil A. M. (1983). ''Modern German Dialects.'' New York / Berne / Frankfort on the Main, Peter Lang, ...
or Upper Franconian (German: , sometimes ), spoken in the Bavarian
Franconia Franconia (german: Franken, ; Franconian dialect: ''Franggn'' ; bar, Frankn) is a region of Germany, characterised by its culture and Franconian dialect (German: ''Fränkisch''). The three administrative regions of Lower, Middle and Upper ...
region, as well as in the adjacent regions of northern
Baden-Württemberg Baden-Württemberg (; ), commonly shortened to BW or BaWü, is a German state () in Southwest Germany, east of the Rhine, which forms the southern part of Germany's western border with France. With more than 11.07 million inhabitants across a ...
and southern
Thuringia Thuringia (; german: Thüringen ), officially the Free State of Thuringia ( ), is a state of central Germany, covering , the sixth smallest of the sixteen German states. It has a population of about 2.1 million. Erfurt is the capital and lar ...
** East Franconian (German: , , colloquially just ') *** Main-Franconian, mainly spoken in Bavarian
Franconia Franconia (german: Franken, ; Franconian dialect: ''Franggn'' ; bar, Frankn) is a region of Germany, characterised by its culture and Franconian dialect (German: ''Fränkisch''). The three administrative regions of Lower, Middle and Upper ...
, in the adjacent Main-Tauber-Kreis of
Baden-Württemberg Baden-Württemberg (; ), commonly shortened to BW or BaWü, is a German state () in Southwest Germany, east of the Rhine, which forms the southern part of Germany's western border with France. With more than 11.07 million inhabitants across a ...
, as well as in
Thuringia Thuringia (; german: Thüringen ), officially the Free State of Thuringia ( ), is a state of central Germany, covering , the sixth smallest of the sixteen German states. It has a population of about 2.1 million. Erfurt is the capital and lar ...
south of the Rennsteig ridge in the Thuringian Forest **** Itzgründish (), spoken in the Itz Valley *** Vogtlandish (), spoken in
Vogtland Vogtland (; cz, Fojtsko) is a region spanning the German states of Bavaria, Saxony and Thuringia and north-western Bohemia in the Czech Republic. It overlaps with and is largely contained within Euregio Egrensis. The name alludes to the forme ...
,
Saxony Saxony (german: Sachsen ; Upper Saxon German, Upper Saxon: ''Saggsn''; hsb, Sakska), officially the Free State of Saxony (german: Freistaat Sachsen, links=no ; Upper Saxon: ''Freischdaad Saggsn''; hsb, Swobodny stat Sakska, links=no), is a ...
'' ometimes;_sometimes_classified_as_East_Central_German_separated_from_Upper_Franconian.html" ;"title="East_Central_German.html" ;"title="ometimes; sometimes classified as
ometimes;_sometimes_classified_as_East_Central_German_separated_from_Upper_Franconian">East_Central_German.html"_;"title="ometimes;_sometimes_classified_as_East_Central_German">ometimes;_sometimes_classified_as_East_Central_German_separated_from_Upper_Franconian' **_South_Franconian_German.html" "title="East Central German">ometimes; sometimes classified as East Central German separated from Upper Franconian">East_Central_German.html" ;"title="ometimes; sometimes classified as East Central German">ometimes; sometimes classified as East Central German separated from Upper Franconian' ** South Franconian German">South Franconian South Franconian (german: Südfränkisch) or South Rhine Franconian (german: Südrheinfränkisch) is an Upper German dialect which is spoken in the northernmost part of Baden-Württemberg in Germany, around Karlsruhe, Mosbach and Heilbronn. Lik ...
(), spoken in the Heilbronn-Franken region of northern
Baden-Württemberg Baden-Württemberg (; ), commonly shortened to BW or BaWü, is a German state () in Southwest Germany, east of the Rhine, which forms the southern part of Germany's western border with France. With more than 11.07 million inhabitants across a ...
down to the
Karlsruhe Karlsruhe ( , , ; South Franconian: ''Kallsruh'') is the third-largest city of the German state (''Land'') of Baden-Württemberg after its capital of Stuttgart and Mannheim, and the 22nd-largest city in the nation, with 308,436 inhabitants. ...
district * Alemannic in the broad sense (German: , , or also Peter Auer: ''Phonologie der Alltagssprache: Eine Untersuchung zur Standard/Dialekt-Variation am Beispiel der Konstanzer Stadtsprache.'' Vol. 8 of ''Studia Linguistica Germanica''. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York, p. 89f.), spoken in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg Baden-Württemberg (; ), commonly shortened to BW or BaWü, is a German state () in Southwest Germany, east of the Rhine, which forms the southern part of Germany's western border with France. With more than 11.07 million inhabitants across a ...
, in the
Bavaria Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total l ...
n region of
Swabia Swabia ; german: Schwaben , colloquially ''Schwabenland'' or ''Ländle''; archaic English also Suabia or Svebia is a cultural, historic and linguistic region in southwestern Germany. The name is ultimately derived from the medieval Duchy of ...
, in
Switzerland ). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
,
Liechtenstein Liechtenstein (), officially the Principality of Liechtenstein (german: link=no, Fürstentum Liechtenstein), is a German language, German-speaking microstate located in the Alps between Austria and Switzerland. Liechtenstein is a semi-constit ...
, the
Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
n state of Vorarlberg and in
Alsace Alsace (, ; ; Low Alemannic German/ gsw-FR, Elsàss ; german: Elsass ; la, Alsatia) is a cultural region and a territorial collectivity in eastern France, on the west bank of the upper Rhine next to Germany and Switzerland. In 2020, it had ...
,
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
**
Swabian Swabian or Schwabian, or ''variation'', may refer to: * the German region of Swabia (German: "''Schwaben''") * Swabian German, a dialect spoken in Baden-Württemberg in south-west Germany and adjoining areas (German:"''Schwäbisch''") * Danube S ...
(German: ), spoken mostly in
Swabia Swabia ; german: Schwaben , colloquially ''Schwabenland'' or ''Ländle''; archaic English also Suabia or Svebia is a cultural, historic and linguistic region in southwestern Germany. The name is ultimately derived from the medieval Duchy of ...
, and further separated by the sounds in the equivalents of German 'broad', 'great', 'snow' *** West Swabian (): *** Central Swabian (): *** East Swabian (): *** South Swabian (): ** Alemannic in the strict sense (German: ) *** Low Alemannic () **** Alsatian (), spoken in
Alsace Alsace (, ; ; Low Alemannic German/ gsw-FR, Elsàss ; german: Elsass ; la, Alsatia) is a cultural region and a territorial collectivity in eastern France, on the west bank of the upper Rhine next to Germany and Switzerland. In 2020, it had ...
, now
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
**** Colonia Tovar German or Alemán Coloniero, spoken in Colonia Tovar,
Venezuela Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
****
Basel German Basel German or Baseldytsch (Standard German: ''Baseldeutsch'') is the dialect of the city of Basel, Switzerland. The dialect of Basel forms a Low Alemannic linguistic exclave in the High Alemannic region. Phonetics and phonology Consonant ...
(German: , Basel German: ) *** High Alemannic () **** Bernese German (German: , Bernese: ) **** Zurich German (German: , Zurich German: or ) *** Highest Alemannic () **** Walser German () or Walliser German (), spoken in the Wallis Canton of
Switzerland ). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
* Bavarian (or ''Bavarian-Austrian'', ''Bavarian–Austrian''Stephen Barbour, Patrick Stevenson: ''Variation in German: A Critical Approach to German Sociolinguistics.'' Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 88f. (in the chapter ''Divisions within Upper German'')) (German: , ), spoken in the German state of
Bavaria Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total l ...
, in
Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
, and in
South Tyrol it, Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano – Alto Adige lld, Provinzia Autonoma de Balsan/Bulsan – Südtirol , settlement_type = Autonomous province , image_skyline = , image_alt ...
,
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
** Northern Bavarian or North Bavarian (), spoken mainly in the Bavarian
Upper Palatinate The Upper Palatinate (german: Oberpfalz, , ) is one of the seven administrative districts of Bavaria, Germany, and is located in the east of Bavaria. Geography The Upper Palatinate is a landscape with low mountains and numerous ponds and lak ...
region ** Central Bavarian (; also , literally ''Danube Bavarian''), spoken mainly in Upper and
Lower Bavaria Lower Bavaria (german: Niederbayern, Bavarian: ''Niedabayern'') is one of the seven administrative regions of Bavaria, Germany, located in the east of the state. Geography Lower Bavaria is subdivided into two regions () – Landshut and Donau-W ...
, in
Salzburg Salzburg (, ; literally "Salt-Castle"; bar, Soizbuag, label=Austro-Bavarian) is the fourth-largest city in Austria. In 2020, it had a population of 156,872. The town is on the site of the Roman settlement of ''Iuvavum''. Salzburg was founded ...
, Upper and
Lower Austria Lower Austria (german: Niederösterreich; Austro-Bavarian: ''Niedaöstareich'', ''Niedaestareich'') is one of the nine states of Austria, located in the northeastern corner of the country. Since 1986, the capital of Lower Austria has been Sankt P ...
*** Viennese German (), spoken in Vienna and parts of Lower Austria ** Southern Bavarian or South Bavarian (; sometimes also , literally ''Alpine Bavarian''E.g. * Gabriele Lunte: ''The Catholic Bohemian German of Ellis County, Kansas: A Unique Bavarian Dialect.'' Vol. 316 of ''European University Studies / Europäische Hochschulschriften / Publications Universitaires Européennes''. Peter Lang, 2007, p. 70 & p. 75 lso with translations* Maria Prexl: ''Wortgeographie des mittleren Böhmerwaldes.'' Nr. 7 of ''Arbeiten zur sprachlichen Volksforschung in den Sudetenländern''. Rudolf M. Rohrer Verlag, Brünn/Leipzig, 1939, p. 3: „ ..gehören dem bairischen Dialekte an. Dieser zerfällt in das Süd- oder Alpenbairische, das Mittel- oder Donaubairische und das Nordbairische (Nordgauische, Oberpfälzische).“ ), spoken mainly in the Austrian states of Tyrol,
Carinthia Carinthia (german: Kärnten ; sl, Koroška ) is the southernmost Austrian state, in the Eastern Alps, and is noted for its mountains and lakes. The main language is German. Its regional dialects belong to the Southern Bavarian group. Carin ...
and
Styria Styria (german: Steiermark ; Serbo-Croatian and sl, ; hu, Stájerország) is a state (''Bundesland'') in the southeast of Austria. With an area of , Styria is the second largest state of Austria, after Lower Austria. Styria is bordered ...
, as well as in
South Tyrol it, Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano – Alto Adige lld, Provinzia Autonoma de Balsan/Bulsan – Südtirol , settlement_type = Autonomous province , image_skyline = , image_alt ...
, Italy ***
Gottscheerish Gottscheerish (''Göttscheabarisch'',Maridi Tscherne: Wörterbuch Gottscheerisch-Slowenisch. Einrichtung für die Erhaltung des Kulturerbes Nesseltal, Koprivnik/Nesseltal 2010. german: Gottscheerisch, sl, kočevarščina) is an Upper German ...
or Granish (German: , Gottscheerish: ''Göttscheabarisch'', sl, kočevarščina), spoken in
Gottschee Gottschee (, sl, Kočevsko) refers to a former German-speaking region in Carniola, a crownland of the Habsburg Empire, part of the historical and traditional region of Lower Carniola, now in Slovenia. The region has been a county, duchy, distric ...
,
Slovenia Slovenia ( ; sl, Slovenija ), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Slovene: , abbr.: ''RS''), is a country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the southeast, and ...
, nearly extinct **
Cimbrian Cimbrian ( cim, zimbar, links=no, ; german: Zimbrisch; it, cimbro) refers to any of several local Upper German varieties spoken in northeastern Italy. The speakers of the language are known as ''Zimbern'' in German. Cimbrian is a Germanic ...
(German: , Cimbrian: ''Zimbar'', Italian: it, lingua cimbra), spoken in the Seven Communities (formerly also in the Thirteen Communities) in Veneto, and around
Luserna Luserna ( Cimbrian: ''Lusérn'', german: Lusern) is a '' comune'' (municipality) in Trentino in the northern Italian region Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, located about southeast of Trento. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 284 and ...
(''Lusern''),
Trentino Trentino ( lld, Trentin), officially the Autonomous Province of Trento, is an autonomous province of Italy, in the country's far north. The Trentino and South Tyrol constitute the region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, an autonomous region ...
, Italy **
Mòcheno language Mòcheno (german: Fersentalerisch; bar, Bersntolerisch) is an Upper German variety spoken in three towns of the Bersntol (german: Fersental, it, Valle del Fersina), in Trentino, northeastern Italy. Mòcheno is closely related to Bavarian a ...
(German: , Mòcheno: ''Bersntoler sproch'', Italian: ), spoken in the
Mocheni Valley The Bersntol (german: Fersental, it, Valle del Fersina) is a valley in the Autonomous Province of Trento, in north-eastern Italy. The Fersina river runs through it. It is also known as the ''Valle del Mòcheni'' after its inhabitants, who spe ...
,
Trentino Trentino ( lld, Trentin), officially the Autonomous Province of Trento, is an autonomous province of Italy, in the country's far north. The Trentino and South Tyrol constitute the region of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, an autonomous region ...
in Italy ** Hutterite German (German: ), spoken in
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by to ...
and the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...
Other ways to group Alemannic include: * Alemannic in the strict sense besides Swabian: ** Upper-Rhine AlemannicJavier Caro Reina: ''Central Catalan and Swabian: A study in the framework of the typology of syllable and word languages.'' Vol. 422 of ''Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie'', edited by Claudia Polzin-Haumann and Wolfgang Schweickard. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2019, p. 245 or Upper Rhine AlemannicAnn-Marie Moser, in: ''Morphological Variation: Theoretical and empirical perspectives'', edited by Antje Dammel and Oliver Schallert. Vol. 207 of ''Studies in Language Companion Series'', edited by Claudia Polzin-Haumann and Wolfgang Schweickard. John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2019, p. 246 ( or ): having shifted ''-b-'' between vowels to ''-w-'' and ''-g-'' between vowels to ''-ch-'' ** Lake Constance Alemannic ( or ): having soundings like ''broat'' (), ''Goaß'' (), ''Soal'' () ** South or High Alemannic ( or ) * Alemannic in the strict sense: ** *: ''separated by the '' ** *** **: ''separated by the '' *** * Alemannic in the strict sense (in the early New High German time): ** *** *** ** *** *** * Alemannic in the broad sense including Swabian (in the Middle High German time): ** or (between Schwarzwald and Lech; since the 13th century) ** or (Elsaß, southern Württemberg, Voralberg) ** or (Südbaden and Swiss) * Alemannic in the broad sense: ** *** *** ** = ** *** *** * Alemannic in the broad sense: ** ** ** : having shifted ''k'' to ''kχ⁠'' *** *** : also having shifted ''k'' after ''n'' to ''kχ⁠'' * Alemannic in the broad sense (with some exemplary differentiations): ** *** **: ''differentiated by the Early New High German diphthongisation (), and also the verbal uniform plural or Einheitsplural () -et/-e and the lexemes ''Wiese/Matte'' ()'' *** *** *: ''differentiated by shift of ''k'' (k''-Verschiebung'')'' ** *: ''differentiated by nasal loss before fricative (), and also the inflection of predicative adjectives'' ** Sometimes the ''dialect of the Western Lake'' (, literally ''Lake Alemannic'') (northern of the Bodensee) is differentiated.


Langobardic (Lombardic)

Based on the fact that
Langobardic Lombardic or Langobardic is an extinct West Germanic language that was spoken by the Lombards (), the Germanic people who settled in Italy in the sixth century. It was already declining by the seventh century because the invaders quickly adopt ...
(German: ), extinct around 1000, has undergone the High German consonant shift, it is also often classified as Upper German. A competing view is that it is an open question where to place Langobardic inside of Old High German and if it is Old High German at all.''Sprachgeschichte: Ein Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und ihrer Erforschung. Herausgegeben von Werner Besch, Anne Betten, Oskar Reichmann, Stefan Sonderegger. 2. Teilband.'' 2nd ed. Volume 2.2 of ''Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft (Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science / Manuels de linguistique et des sciences de communication)'' (HSK). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York, 2000, p. 1151


References

{{Authority control Upper German languages German dialects