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Tuscan ( it, dialetto toscano ; it, vernacolo, label=locally) is a set of
Italo-Dalmatian The Italo-Dalmatian languages, or Central Romance languages, are a group of Romance languages spoken in Italy, Corsica (France), and formerly in Dalmatia (Croatia). Italo-Dalmatian can be split into:Hammarström, Harald & Forkel, Robert & Haspe ...
varieties of Romance mainly spoken in
Tuscany it, Toscano (man) it, Toscana (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = Citizenship , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = Italian , demogra ...
, Italy. Standard Italian is based on Tuscan, specifically on its
Florentine dialect The Florentine dialect or vernacular ( or ) is a variety of Tuscan, a Romance language spoken in the Italian city of Florence and its immediate surroundings. A received pedagogical variant derived from it historically, once called (literally ...
, and it became the language of culture throughout Italy due to the prestige of the works by
Dante Alighieri Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His '' Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: ...
,
Petrarch Francesco Petrarca (; 20 July 1304 – 18/19 July 1374), commonly anglicized as Petrarch (), was a scholar and poet of early Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited ...
,
Giovanni Boccaccio Giovanni Boccaccio (, , ; 16 June 1313 – 21 December 1375) was an Italian writer, poet, correspondent of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanist. Born in the town of Certaldo, he became so well known as a writer that he was som ...
,
Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli ( , , ; 3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527), occasionally rendered in English as Nicholas Machiavel ( , ; see below), was an Italian diplomat, author, philosopher and historian who lived during the Renaissance. ...
, and
Francesco Guicciardini Francesco Guicciardini (; 6 March 1483 – 22 May 1540) was an Italian historian and statesman. A friend and critic of Niccolò Machiavelli, he is considered one of the major political writers of the Italian Renaissance. In his masterpiece, ''T ...
. It would later become the official language of all the
Italian states Italy, up until the Italian unification in 1861, was a conglomeration of city-states, republics, and other independent entities. The following is a list of the various Italian states during that period. Following the fall of the Western Roman Em ...
and of the
Kingdom of Italy The Kingdom of Italy ( it, Regno d'Italia) was a state that existed from 1861, when Victor Emmanuel II of Kingdom of Sardinia, Sardinia was proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, proclaimed King of Italy, until 1946, when civil discontent led to ...
when it was formed.


Subdialects

In '' De vulgari eloquentia'' ( 1300),
Dante Alighieri Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His '' Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: ...
distinguishes four main subdialects: ''fiorentino'' (
Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico ...
), ''senese'' (
Siena Siena ( , ; lat, Sena Iulia) is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena. The city is historically linked to commercial and banking activities, having been a major banking center until the 13th and 14th centur ...
), ''lucchese'' (
Lucca Lucca ( , ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, Central Italy, on the Serchio River, in a fertile plain near the Ligurian Sea. The city has a population of about 89,000, while its province has a population of 383,957. Lucca is known as one ...
) and ''aretino'' (
Arezzo Arezzo ( , , ) , also ; ett, 𐌀𐌓𐌉𐌕𐌉𐌌, Aritim. is a city and '' comune'' in Italy and the capital of the province of the same name located in Tuscany. Arezzo is about southeast of Florence at an elevation of above sea lev ...
). Tuscan is a dialect complex composed of many local variants, with minor differences among them. The main subdivisions are between Northern Tuscan dialects, the Southern Tuscan dialects, and Corsican. The Northern Tuscan dialects are (from east to west): * Fiorentino, the main dialect of
Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico ...
,
Chianti A Chianti wine (, also , ) is any wine produced in the Chianti region of central Tuscany. It was historically associated with a squat bottle enclosed in a straw basket, called a ''fiasco'' ("flask"; ''pl. fiaschi''). However, the ''fiasco'' is ...
and the
Mugello The Mugello is a historic region and valley in northern Tuscany, in Italy, corresponding to the course of the River Sieve. It is located to the north of the city of Florence and includes the northernmost portion of the Metropolitan City of ...
, also spoken in
Prato Prato ( , ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, Italy, the capital of the Province of Prato. The city lies in the north east of Tuscany, at the foot of Monte Retaia, elevation , the last peak in the Calvana chain. With more than 200,000 ...
and along the river
Arno The Arno is a river in the Tuscany region of Italy. It is the most important river of central Italy after the Tiber. Source and route The river originates on Monte Falterona in the Casentino area of the Apennines, and initially takes a ...
as far as the city of Fucecchio. * Pistoiese, spoken in the city of
Pistoia Pistoia (, is a city and ''comune'' in the Italian region of Tuscany, the capital of a province of the same name, located about west and north of Florence and is crossed by the Ombrone Pistoiese, a tributary of the River Arno. It is a ty ...
and nearest zones (some linguists include this dialect in ''Fiorentino''). * Pesciatino or Valdinievolese, spoken in the
Valdinievole Valdinievole or Val di Nievole (; "Valley of the Nievole (River)") is an area in the south-western part of the province of Pistoia, Tuscany, Italy. Geography The area is made up of 11 comuni: Buggiano, Chiesina Uzzanese, Larciano, Lamporecch ...
zone, in the cities of
Pescia Pescia () is an Italian city in the province of Pistoia, Tuscany, central Italy. It is located in a central zone between the cities Lucca and Florence, on the banks of the river of the same name. History Archaeological excavations have sugges ...
and
Montecatini Terme Montecatini Terme is an Italian municipality (''comune'') of c. 20,000 inhabitants in the province of Pistoia, Tuscany, central Italy. It is the most important center in Valdinievole. The town is located at the eastern end of Piana di Lucc ...
(some linguists include this dialect in ''Lucchese''). * Lucchese, spoken in
Lucca Lucca ( , ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, Central Italy, on the Serchio River, in a fertile plain near the Ligurian Sea. The city has a population of about 89,000, while its province has a population of 383,957. Lucca is known as one ...
and nearby hills (''Lucchesia''). * Versiliese, spoken in the historical area of Versilia. * Viareggino, spoken in Viareggio and vicinity. * Pisano-Livornese, spoken in
Pisa Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the ci ...
, in
Livorno Livorno () is a port city on the Ligurian Sea on the western coast of Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Livorno, having a population of 158,493 residents in December 2017. It is traditionally known in English as Leghorn (pronou ...
, and the vicinity, and along the coast from Livorno to Cecina. The Southern Tuscan dialects are (from east to west): * Aretino-Chianaiolo, spoken in
Arezzo Arezzo ( , , ) , also ; ett, 𐌀𐌓𐌉𐌕𐌉𐌌, Aritim. is a city and '' comune'' in Italy and the capital of the province of the same name located in Tuscany. Arezzo is about southeast of Florence at an elevation of above sea lev ...
and the
Valdichiana The Val di Chiana, Valdichiana, or Chiana Valley is an alluvial valley of central Italy, lying on the territories of the provinces of Arezzo and Siena in Tuscany and the provinces of Perugia and Terni in Umbria. Geography The Val di Chiana is ...
. * Senese, spoken in the city and province of
Siena Siena ( , ; lat, Sena Iulia) is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena. The city is historically linked to commercial and banking activities, having been a major banking center until the 13th and 14th centur ...
. * Grossetano, spoken in
Grosseto Grosseto () is a city and ''comune'' in the central Italian region of Tuscany, the capital of the Province of Grosseto. The city lies from the Tyrrhenian Sea, in the Maremma, at the centre of an alluvial plain on the Ombrone river. It is the ...
and along the southern coast. * Elbano, spoken on the island of Elba. Corsican on the island of
Corsica Corsica ( , Upper , Southern ; it, Corsica; ; french: Corse ; lij, Còrsega; sc, Còssiga) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the 18 regions of France. It is the fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean and lies southeast of ...
and the Corso-Sardinian transitional varieties spoken in northern
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label= Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, aft ...
( Gallurese and
Sassarese Sassarese (natively ''sassaresu'' or ''turritanu''; sc, tataresu ) is an Italo-Dalmatian language and transitional variety between Sardinian and Corsican. It is regarded as a Corso– Sardinian language because of Sassari's historic ties ...
) are classified by scholars as a direct offshoot from medieval Tuscan, even though they now constitute a distinct linguistic group.


Speakers

Excluding the inhabitants of
Province of Massa and Carrara The province of Massa-Carrara ( it, provincia di Massa-Carrara) is a province in the Tuscany region of central Italy. It is named after the provincial capital Massa, and Carrara, the other main town in the province. History The province of ...
, who speak an Emilian dialect, and people in the area of Tuscan Romagna, speaking Romagnol, around 3,500,000 people speak the Tuscan dialect.


Dialectal features

The Tuscan dialect as a whole has certain defining features, with subdialects that are distinguished by minor details.


Phonetics


Tuscan gorgia

The
Tuscan gorgia The Tuscan gorgia ( it, gorgia toscana , ; "Tuscan throat") is a phonetic phenomenon governed by a complex of allophonic rules characteristic of the Tuscan dialects, in Tuscany, Italy, especially the central ones, with Florence traditionally viewe ...
affects the
voiceless In linguistics, voicelessness is the property of sounds being pronounced without the larynx vibrating. Phonologically, it is a type of phonation, which contrasts with other states of the larynx, but some object that the word phonation implies ...
stop consonant In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or simply a stop, is a pulmonic consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be made with the tongue tip or blade (, ), tongue body (, ), li ...
s and . They are often pronounced as
fricatives A fricative is a consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate in t ...
in post-vocalic position when not blocked by the competing phenomenon of syntactic gemination: * → * → * →


Weakening of G and C

A phonetic phenomenon is the intervocalic weakening of the Italian ''soft g'', the voiced affricate (''g'' as in ''judge'') and ''soft c'', the voiceless affricate (''ch'' as in ''church''), known as ''attenuation'', or, more commonly, as deaffrication. Between vowels, the ''voiced post-alveolar affricate'' consonant is realized as ''voiced post-alveolar fricative'' (''z'' of azure): This phenomenon is very evident in daily speech (common also in
Umbria it, Umbro (man) it, Umbra (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , ...
and elsewhere in Central Italy): the phrase ''la gente'', 'the people', in standard Italian is pronounced , but in Tuscan it is . Similarly, the ''voiceless post-alveolar affricate'' is pronounced as a ''voiceless post-alveolar fricative'' between two vowels: The sequence ''la cena'', 'the dinner', in standard Italian is pronounced , but in Tuscan it is . As a result of this weakening rule, there are a few minimal pairs distinguished only by length of the voiceless fricative (e.g. ''lacerò'' 'it/he/she ripped' vs. ''lascerò'' 'I will leave/let').


Affrication of S

A less common phonetic phenomenon is the realization of "voiceless s" (
voiceless alveolar fricative The voiceless alveolar fricatives are a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are at lea ...
) as the
voiceless alveolar affricate A voiceless alveolar affricate is a type of affricate consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge (gum line) just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are several ty ...
when preceded by , , or . For example, ''il sole'' (the sun), pronounced in standard Italian as , would be in theory pronounced by a Tuscan speaker . However, since assimilation of the final consonant of the article to the following consonant tends to occur in exactly such cases (see "Masculine definite articles" below) the actual pronunciation will be usually . Affrication of can more commonly be heard word-internally, as in ''falso'' (false) → . This is a common phenomenon in Central Italy, but it is not exclusive to that area; for example it also happens in
Switzerland ). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
(
Canton Ticino Ticino (), sometimes Tessin (), officially the Republic and Canton of Ticino or less formally the Canton of Ticino,, informally ''Canton Ticino'' ; lmo, Canton Tesin ; german: Kanton Tessin ; french: Canton du Tessin ; rm, Chantun dal Tessin . ...
).


No diphthongization of

There are two Tuscan historical outcomes of Latin ''ŏ'' in stressed open syllables. Passing first through a stage , the vowel then develops as a diphthong . This phenomenon never gained universal acceptance, however, so that while forms with the diphthong came to be accepted as standard Italian (e.g. ''fuoco'', ''buono'', ''nuovo'', ''duomo''), the monophthong remains in popular speech (''foco'', ''bono'', ''novo'', ''domo'').


Morphology


Accusative "te" for "tu"

A characteristic of Tuscan dialect is the use of the accusative pronoun ''te'' in emphatic clauses of the type "You! What are you doing here?". * Standard Italian: ''tu lo farai, no?'' 'You'll do it, won't you?' * Tuscan: ''Te lo farai, no?'' * Standard Italian: ''tu, vieni qua!'' 'You, come here!' * Tuscan: ''Te, vieni qua!''


Double dative pronoun

A morphological phenomenon, cited also by
Alessandro Manzoni Alessandro Francesco Tommaso Antonio Manzoni (, , ; 7 March 1785 – 22 May 1873) was an Italian poet, novelist and philosopher. He is famous for the novel '' The Betrothed'' (orig. it, I promessi sposi) (1827), generally ranked among the maste ...
in his masterpiece "''I promessi sposi''" (The Betrothed), is the doubling of the dative pronoun. For the use of a personal pronoun as ''indirect object'' (''to someone, to something''), also called ''
dative case In grammar, the dative case ( abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in "Maria Jacobo potum dedit", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob ...
'', the standard Italian makes use of a construction ''preposition + pronoun'' a me (to me), or it makes use of a synthetic pronoun form, mi (to me). The Tuscan dialect makes use of both in the same sentence as a kind of intensification of the dative/indirect object: * In Standard Italian: ''a me piace'' or ''mi piace'' ("I like it"; literally, "it pleases me") * In Tuscan: ''a me mi piace'' or ''a me mi garba'' ("I like it") This usage is widespread throughout the central regions of Italy, not only in Tuscany, and is often considered redundant and erroneous by language purists. It is also a standard feature in Spanish: ''a mí me gusta'' ("I like it") In some dialects the double accusative pronoun ''me mi vedi'' (lit: ''You see me me'') can be heard, but it is considered an archaic form.


Masculine definite articles

The singular and plural masculine definite articles can both be realized phonetically as in Florentine varieties of Tuscan, but are distinguished by their phonological effect on following consonants. The singular provokes lengthening of the following consonant: 'the dog', whereas the plural permits consonant weakening: 'the dogs'. As in Italian, masc. sing. ''lo'' occurs before consonants long by nature or not permitting in clusters is normal (''lo zio'' 'the uncle', ''lo studente'' 'the student'), although forms such as ''i zio'' can be heard in rustic varieties.


Noi + impersonal ''si''

A morpholosyntactic phenomenon found throughout Tuscany is the personal use of the particle identical to impersonal si (not to be confused with ''passive si'' or the ''reflexive si''), as the first person plural. It is basically the same as the use of ''on'' in
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
. It's possible to use the construction ''si'' + ''Third person in singular'', which can be preceded by the first plural person pronoun ''noi''. * Standard Italian: ''Andiamo a mangiare'' (We're going to eat), ''Noi andiamo là'' (We go there) * Tuscan: ''Si va a mangià'' (We're going to eat), ''Noi si va là'' (We go there) The phenomenon is found in all verb tenses, including compound tenses. In these tenses, the use of ''si'' requires a form of essere (''to be'') as auxiliary verb. If the verb is one that otherwise selects auxiliary avere in compound constructions, the past participle does not agree with the subject in gender and number: * Italian: ''Abbiamo mangiato al ristorante.'' * Tuscan: ''S'è mangiato al ristorante.'' If the verb normally requires ''essere'', the past participle is marked as plural: * Italian: ''Siamo andati al cinema.'' * Tuscan: ''S'è andati al cinema.'' Usually ''si'' contracts before è: ''si è → s'è''.


Fo (faccio) and vo (vado)

Another morphological phenomenon in the Tuscan dialect is what might appear to be shortening of first singular verb forms in the present tense of ''fare'' (''to do'', ''to make'') and ''andare'' (''to go''). * Fare: It. ''faccio'' Tusc. fo (I do, I make) * Andare: It. ''vado'' Tusc. vo (I go) These forms have two origins. Natural phonological change alone can account for loss of and reduction of to in the case of > * > . A case such as Latin: ''sapio'' > Italian so (I know), however, admits no such phonological account: the expected outcome of would be *, with a normal lengthening of the consonant preceding yod. What seems to have taken place is a realignment of the paradigm in accordance with the statistically minor but highly frequent paradigms of ''dare'' (give) and ''stare'' (be, stay). Thus ''so, sai, sa, sanno'' (all singulars and 3rd personal plural of 'know') come to fit the template of ''do, dai, dà, danno'' ('give'), ''sto, stai, sta, stanno'' ('be, stay'), and ''fo, fai, fa, fanno'' ('make, do') follows the same pattern. The form vo, while quite possibly a natural phonological development, seems to have been reinforced by analogy in this case.


Loss of infinitival "-re"

A phonological phenomenon that might appear to be a morphological one is the loss of the infinitival ending -re of verbs. * ''andàre'' → andà * ''pèrdere'' → pèrde * ''finìre'' → finì Stress remains on the same vowel that is stressed in the full form, so that the infinitive can come to coincide with various conjugated singulars: ''pèrde'' 'to lose', ''pèrde'' 's/he loses'; ''finì'' 'to finish', ''finì'' 's/he finished'. This homophony seldom, if ever, causes confusion, as they usually appear in distinct syntactic contexts. While the infinitive without ''-re'' is universal in some subtypes such as Pisano-Livornese, in the vicinity of
Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico ...
alternations are regular, so that the full infinitive (e.g. ''vedere'' 'to see') appears when followed by a pause, and the clipped form (''vedé'') is found when phrase internal. The consonant of enclitics is lengthened if preceded by stressed vowel (''vedéllo'' 'to see it', ''portàcci'' 'to bring us'), but not when the preceding vowel of the infinitive is unstressed (''lèggelo'' 'to read it', ''pèrdeti'' 'to lose you'). A similar process is found in Catalan and its dialects. Final infinitive -r is not pronounced, so ''anar'' is realised as /ə'na/, as well as in Campidanese Sardinian.


Lexicon

The biggest differences among dialects is in the
lexicon A lexicon is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge (such as nautical or medical). In linguistics, a lexicon is a language's inventory of lexemes. The word ''lexicon'' derives from Greek word (), neuter of () meaning 'of or fo ...
, which also distinguishes the different subdialects. The Tuscan lexicon is almost entirely shared with standard Italian, but many words may be perceived as obsolete or literary by non-Tuscans. There are a number of strictly regional words and expressions too. Characteristically Tuscan words: * accomodare (which means "to arrange" in standard Italian) for ''riparare'' (to repair) * babbo (standard form in Italian before the French loanword ''papa'') for ''papà'' (dad) * billo for ''tacchino'' (turkey) * bove (literary form in standard Italian) for ''bue'' (ox) * cacio for ''formaggio'' (cheese), especially for Pecorino * calzoni (literary form in standard Italian) for ''pantaloni'' (trousers) * camiciola for ''canottiera'' (undervest) * cannella (literary form in standard Italian) for ''rubinetto'' (tap) * capo (literary form in standard Italian) and chiorba for ''testa'' (head) * cencio for ''straccio'' (rag, tatters) (but also ''straccio'' is widely used in Tuscany) * chetarsi (literary form in standard Italian) or chetassi for ''fare silenzio'' (to be silent) * codesto (literary form in standard Italian) is a pronoun which specifically identifies an object far from the speaker, but near the listener (corresponding in meaning to Latin ''iste''). * costì or costà is a locative adverb which refers to a place far from the speaker, but near the listener. It relates to ''codesto'' as ''qui/qua'' relates to ''questo'', and ''lì/là'' to ''quello'' * desinare (literary form in standard Italian) for ''pranzare'' (to have lunch) * diaccio for ''ghiacciato'', ''freddo'' (frozen, cold) * essi for ''sii'' (second-person singular imperative form of 'to be') * furia (which means "fury" in standard Italian) for ''fretta'' (hurry) * golpe or gorpe for ''volpe'' (fox) * garbare for ''piacere'' (to like) (but also ''piacere'' is sometimes used in Tuscany) * gota (literary form in standard Italian) for ''guancia'' (cheek) * ire for ''andare'' (to go) (only some forms as ito (gone)) * lapis for ''matita'' (pencil) * popone for ''melone'' (cantaloupe) * punto for ''per nulla'' or ''niente affatto'' (not at all) in negative sentences (cf. French ''ne ... point'') * rigovernare for ''lavare i piatti'' (to do/wash the dishes) * sciocco (which means "silly" or "stupid" in standard Italian) for ''insipido'' (insipid) * sistola for ''tubo da giardinaggio'' (garden hose) * sortire for ''uscire'' (to exit) (cfr.
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
''sortir'') * sudicio for ''spazzatura'' (garbage) as a noun and for ''sporco'' (dirty) as an adjective * termosifone or radiatore for ''calorifero'' (radiator) * tocco for ''le 13'' (one p.m.), lunch time


See also

* Augusto Novelli, Italian playwright known for using the Tuscan dialect for 20th-century Florentine theater * ''
The Adventures of Pinocchio ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'' ( ; it, Le avventure di Pinocchio ; commonly shortened to ''Pinocchio'') is a children's fantasy novel by Italian author Carlo Collodi. It is about the mischievous adventures of an animated marionette named Pi ...
'', written by
Carlo Collodi Carlo Lorenzini (24 November 1826 – 26 October 1890), better known by the pen name Carlo Collodi (), was an Italian author, humourist, and journalist, widely known for his fairy tale novel ''The Adventures of Pinocchio''. Early life Co ...
in Italian but employing frequent Florentinisms


References

* Giannelli, Luciano. 2000. ''Toscana''. Profilo dei dialetti, 9. Pisa: Pacini.


External links


Atlante lessicale toscano (ALT) - Dialectometry

The Linguasphere Register
{{Romance languages Dialects of Italian Tuscany