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Tupi–Guarani () is the most widely distributed subfamily of the
Tupian languages The Tupi or Tupian language family comprises some 70 languages spoken in South America, of which the best known are Tupi proper and Guarani. Homeland and ''urheimat'' Rodrigues (2007) considers the Proto-Tupian urheimat to be somewhere betwee ...
of South America. It consists of about fifty languages, including Guarani and
Old Tupi Old Tupi, Ancient Tupi or Classical Tupi (also spelled as Tupí) is an extinct Tupian language which was spoken by the aboriginal Tupi people of Brazil, mostly those who inhabited coastal regions in South and Southeast Brazil. It belongs to t ...
. The words ''
petunia ''Petunia'' is genus of 20 species of flowering plants of South American origin. The popular flower of the same name derived its epithet from the French, which took the word ''petun'', meaning "tobacco," from a Tupi–Guarani language. A tend ...
, jaguar, piranha,
ipecac Syrup of ipecac (), or simply ipecac, is a drug that was once widely used as an expectorant (in low doses) and a rapid-acting emetic (in higher doses). It is obtained from the dried rhizome and roots of the ipecacuanha plant ('' Carapichea ipec ...
,
tapioca Tapioca (; ) is a starch extracted from the storage roots of the cassava plant (''Manihot esculenta,'' also known as manioc), a species native to the North and Northeast regions of Brazil, but whose use is now spread throughout South America ...
, jacaranda, anhinga,
carioca Carioca ( or ) is a demonym used to refer to anything related to the City of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. The original meaning of the term is controversial, maybe from Tupi language "''kari' oka''", meaning "white house" as the whitewashed stone ...
'', and ''
capoeira Capoeira () is an Afro-Brazilian martial art that combines elements of dance, acrobatics, music and spirituality. Born of the melting pot of enslaved Africans, Indigenous Brazilians and Portuguese influences at the beginning of the 16th century ...
'' are of Tupi–Guarani origin.


Classification


Rodrigues & Cabral (2012)

Rodrigues & Cabral (2012) propose eight branches of Tupí–Guaraní: * Guaraní (Group I) * Guarayu (Group II): Guarayu, Pauserna**, Sirionó (dialects: Yuqui, Jorá**) *
Tupí Tupí, also known as ''formatge de tupí'', is a fermented cheese of a certain area of the Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees made from cows' or sheep's milk. It is a cheese traditionally prepared in the mountainous Pallars region, as well as in the Cerd ...
(Group III):
Old Tupi Old Tupi, Ancient Tupi or Classical Tupi (also spelled as Tupí) is an extinct Tupian language which was spoken by the aboriginal Tupi people of Brazil, mostly those who inhabited coastal regions in South and Southeast Brazil. It belongs to t ...
(lingua franca dialect:
Tupí Austral Tupí, also known as ''formatge de tupí'', is a fermented cheese of a certain area of the Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees made from cows' or sheep's milk. It is a cheese traditionally prepared in the mountainous Pallars region, as well as in the Cerd ...
), Tupinambá (dialects: Nheengatu,
Língua Geral Língua Geral (, ''General Language'') is the name of two distinct lingua francas, spoken in Brazil: the '' Língua Geral Paulista'' (''Tupi Austral'', or Southern Tupi), which was spoken in the region of Paulistania but is now dead, and the '' L� ...
as lingua franca, and Potiguára), Cocama
Omagua Omagua or low jungle (''selva baja'' or partially '' tierra caliente'') is one of the eightPulgar Vidal, Javier: Geografía del Perú; Las Ocho Regiones Naturales del Perú. Edit. Universo S.A., Lima 1979. First Edition (his dissertation of 1940): ...
*, Tupinikin** * Tenetehara (Group IV): Akwáwa (dialects: Asuriní, Suruí do Pará, Parakanã), Avá-Canoeiro, Tapirapé, Tenetehára (dialects: Guajajara, Tembé), Turiwára * Kawahíb (Group VI): Apiacá, Kawahíb (numerous varieties; incl. Piripkúra, Diahói?), Kayabí, Karipúna, ? Uru-Pa-In *'' Kamayurá'' (Group VII) * Xingu (Group VIIIa): Anambé (of Cairarí), Amanayé, Xingú Asuriní, Araweté, Aurá, Ararandewara * Northern Tupi–Guaraní (Group VIIIb): Anambé of Ehrenreich, Emerillon, Guajá,
Wayampi The Wayampi or Wayãpi are an indigenous people located in the south-eastern border area of French Guiana at the confluence of the rivers Camopi and Oyapock, and the basins of the Amapari and Carapanatuba Rivers in the central part of the state ...
,
Zo'é The Zo'é people are a native tribe in the State of Pará, Municipality of Óbidos, on the Cuminapanema River, Brazil. They are a Tupi–Guarani people. Name They are also known as the Poturu, Poturujara, or Buré. The term "Zo'é" means "us ...
, Takunyapé, Urubú–Kaapor, Wayampipukú *Cabral argues that Kokama/Omagua is a
mixed language A mixed language is a language that arises among a bilingual group combining aspects of two or more languages but not clearly deriving primarily from any single language. It differs from a creole or pidgin language in that, whereas creoles/pidgin ...
, and so not directly classifiable, though most of its basic vocabulary is Tupi–Guarani. **Not listed in Rodrigues & Cabral (2012) Karipuna language (Amapá) may be spurious. Sound changes from Proto-Tupi-Guarani (PTG) defining each of the 8 Tupi-Guarani groups as listed by Rodrigues & Cabral (2002):Rodrigues, A. D.; Cabral, A. S. A. C. Revendo a classificação interna da família Tupí-Guaraní. In: CABRAL, A. S. A. C., RODRIGUES, A. D. (Orgs.). ''Línguas indígenas brasileiras: fonologia, gramática e história''. Tomo I. Belém: UFPA/EDUFPA, p. 327-337, 2002. :


Michael, et al. (2015)

Michael, et al. (2015) propose the following classification for the Tupi-Guarani languages. ;Tupí-Guaraní * Kamaiurá (600 speakers) *Nuclear Tupí-Guaraní **
Northern Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a r ...
*** Guajá (280 speakers) *** Ka'ápor (800 speakers) *** Avá-Canoeiro (14 speakers) **
Central Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object. Central may also refer to: Directions and generalised locations * Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known a ...
***(branch) **** Anambé, Araweté (Anambé 6 speakers, Araweté 280 speakers) **** Xingú Asurini (120 speakers) ***(branch) **** Tocantins Asuriní, Parakanã (700-1,500 speakers) **** Tapirapé (560 speakers) **Peripheral ***
Wayampi The Wayampi or Wayãpi are an indigenous people located in the south-eastern border area of French Guiana at the confluence of the rivers Camopi and Oyapock, and the basins of the Amapari and Carapanatuba Rivers in the central part of the state ...
, Emerillon (Wayampi 1,200 speakers, Emerillon 400 speakers) *** Kayabí, Parintintin (Kayabí 1,000 speakers, Kagwahiva 870 speakers) ***Diasporic ****
Tembé The Tembé, also Timbé and Tenetehara, are an indigenous people of Brazil, living along the Maranhão and Gurupi Rivers, in the state of Amazonas and Pará. Their lands have been encroached and settled by farmers and loggers, who do so illeg ...
(13,000 speakers) ****(Diasporic core branch) ***** Tupi ******
Omagua Omagua or low jungle (''selva baja'' or partially '' tierra caliente'') is one of the eightPulgar Vidal, Javier: Geografía del Perú; Las Ocho Regiones Naturales del Perú. Edit. Universo S.A., Lima 1979. First Edition (his dissertation of 1940): ...
, Kokama (Omagua 10 speakers, Cocama 250 speakers) ****** Tupinambá (Nheengatu 19,000 speakers) *****Southern ****** Sirionó, Yuki (500 speakers) ****** Guarayu, Pauserna † (Guarayu 5,900 speakers) ****** Guaranian ******* Aché (910 speakers) ******* Mbyá ******* Paraguay Guaraní (4.85 million speakers) *******(branch) ******** Xetá †, Kaiowá, Ñandeva (Kaiwá 18,000 speakers, Ava Guarani 16,000 speakers) ******** Tapiete,
Chiriguano The Ava Guaraní are an Indigenous peoples formerly known as Chiriguanos or Chiriguano Indians who speak the Ava Guarani and Eastern Bolivian Guaraní languages. Noted for their warlike character, the Chiriguanos retained their lands in the And ...
(Chiriguano 51,000 speakers) O'Hagan et al. (2014, 2019) proposes that Proto-Tupi-Guarani was spoken in the region of the lower Tocantins and Xingu Rivers, just to the south of Marajó Island in eastern Pará State, Brazil. Proto-Omagua-Kokama then expanded up the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
, Proto- Tupinambá expanded south along the Atlantic coast, and the Southern branch expanded up along the Tocantins/
Araguaia River The Araguaia River ( pt, Rio Araguaia , Karajá: ♂ ''Berohokỹ'' eɾohoˈkə̃ ♀ ''Bèrakuhukỹ'' ɛɾakuhuˈkə̃ is one of the major rivers of Brazil though it is almost equal in volume at its confluence with the Tocantins. It has a tota ...
towards the Paraná River basin.


Jolkesky (2016)

Below is an internal classification of Tupi-Guarani by Jolkesky (2016), which is largely based on Michael, et al. (2015):Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016.
Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas
'. Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Brasília The University of Brasília ( pt, Universidade de Brasília, UnB) is a federal public university in Brasília, the capital of Brazil. It was founded in 1960 and has since consistently been named among the top five Brazilian universities and the ...
.
(† = extinct) ;Tupi-Guarani branch *Kamayura: '' Kamayura'' *Kaapor-Ava **Ava-Canoeiro: '' Ava-Canoeiro'' ** Kaapor: '' Anambe'' †; '' Aura''; '' Guaja''; '' Takuñape'' †; '' Urubu-Kaapor'' * Akwawa-Arawete **Akwawa-Tapirape ***Akwawa: '' Asurini do Tocantins''; '' Parakanã''; '' Surui'' (Tupi-Guarani) ***Tapirape: '' Tapirape'' **Arawete-Asurini ***Arawete: '' Amanaye'' †; '' Anambe''; '' Ararandewara'' †; '' Arawete'' ***Asurini do Xingu: '' Asurini do Xingu'' *Nuclear Tupi-Guarani ** Tenetehara: '' Guajajara''; '' Tembe''; '' Turiwara'' † ** Kawahib-Kayabi ***Apiaka: '' Apiaka'' ***Juma: '' Juma'' ***Kayabi: '' Kayabi'' ***Kawahib: '' Amondawa''; '' Karipuna'' (Tupi); '' Parintintin''; '' Piripkura''; '' Tukumanfed'' †; '' Uruewauwau''; '' Wirafed'' **Diasporic Tupi-Guarani ***Guarani-Guarayu-Siriono **** Guarayu: '' Guarayu''; '' Pauserna'' ****Siriono: '' Siriono''; '' Jora'' †; '' Yuki'' **** Guarani *****Ache: '' Ache'' *****Guarani: '' Guarani, Classical'' †; ''
Chiriguano The Ava Guaraní are an Indigenous peoples formerly known as Chiriguanos or Chiriguano Indians who speak the Ava Guarani and Eastern Bolivian Guaraní languages. Noted for their warlike character, the Chiriguanos retained their lands in the And ...
''; '' Chiripa'' *****Central: '' Guarani Paraguaio'' *****Western: '' Guarani Boliviano''; '' Tapiete'' *****Eastern: '' Kayowa''; '' Mbya''; '' Ñandeva''; '' Pai Tavytera''; '' Sheta'' *** Tupinamba-Kokama ****Kokama-Omagua: '' Kokama''; '' Kokamilla''; ''
Omagua Omagua or low jungle (''selva baja'' or partially '' tierra caliente'') is one of the eightPulgar Vidal, Javier: Geografía del Perú; Las Ocho Regiones Naturales del Perú. Edit. Universo S.A., Lima 1979. First Edition (his dissertation of 1940): ...
'' ****Tupi: '' Tupi'' †; '' Tupi Austral'' † ****Tupinamba: '' Nhengatu''; '' Tupinamba'' † ****Wayampi: '' Emerillon''; ''
Wayampi The Wayampi or Wayãpi are an indigenous people located in the south-eastern border area of French Guiana at the confluence of the rivers Camopi and Oyapock, and the basins of the Amapari and Carapanatuba Rivers in the central part of the state ...
''; '' Zo'e''


Ferraz and Reichert (2021)

The following is an approximation of the results of a computational phylogenetic study of the Tupí-Guaraní languages by Ferraz and Reichert (2021). ;Tupí-Guaraní *Guajá–Tenetehara **Guajá; Tembé, Guajajara *Guaraní **Warazu **Xetá **Guayaki; Tapiete, Chiriguano **Guaraní; Kaiowá, Mbyá **Guarayo; Sirionó, Yuki *Tupi **Tupinambá; Nheengatu, Ka'apor (Urubu-Kaapor) *Northern **Kamayura; Anambé, Araweté **Avá–Wayampí? ***Avá-Canoeiro ***Wayampí Jarí; Emerillon, Wayampí *Central **Asurini Xingu **Akwawa–Tapirapé ***Apiaká; Suruí; Tapirapé; Parakanã, Asurini **Kawahib ***Kayabi ***Parintintin, Tenharim ***Amondava, Urueuwauwau


Varieties

Below is a list of Tupi–Guarani language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties. ;Tupi (Abañeénga) dialects *Tamoyo - once spoken from the
Cabo de São Tomé The Cabo de São Tomé is a peninsula in the state of Rio de Janeiro, on the coast of southeastern Brazil. It is 40 km southeast of the city of Campos dos Goytacazes. Further southeast is Cabo Frio Cabo Frio (, ''Cold Cape'') is a tourist ...
to
Angra dos Reis Angra dos Reis (; Portuguese for ''cove'' or ''bay of the Kings'') is a Brazilian municipality located in the southern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro. The city is located by the sea and includes in its territory many offshore islands, the l ...
, state of Rio de Janeiro. (Unattested.) *Ararape - once spoken on the
Paraíba do Sul River Paraíba ( Tupi: ''pa'ra a'íba''; ) is a state of Brazil. It is located in the Brazilian Northeast, and it is bordered by Rio Grande do Norte to the north, Ceará to the west, Pernambuco to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Paraíba ...
in the state of Rio de Janeiro. (Unattested.) *Temimino - once spoken on the coast of the state of Espirito Santo. (Unattested.) *Tupiniquin / Margaya - once spoken on the coast from Espirito Santo as far as
Camamu Camamu is a municipality in the state of Bahia, Brazil. Politically, it is in the Valença subregion of the Sul Baiano region. It is located on the southern coast of Bahia state, the Costa do Dendê (Palm Coast), along the BA-001 highway. The muni ...
, state of Bahia. *Tupinamba - formerly spoken on the coast from
Camamu Camamu is a municipality in the state of Bahia, Brazil. Politically, it is in the Valença subregion of the Sul Baiano region. It is located on the southern coast of Bahia state, the Costa do Dendê (Palm Coast), along the BA-001 highway. The muni ...
as far as the mouth of the São Francisco River, later on the coast in the state of Maranhão. *Tupina - once spoken in the interior of the state of Bahia. (Unattested.) *Caeté / Caité - once spoken on the coast from the mouth of the São Francisco River to the mouth of the
Paraíba do Norte River The Paraíba do Norte River, mostly known as Paraíba River, is the most important watercourse of the state of Paraíba in northeastern Brazil. The river originates in the Borborema Plateau, and flows northeast to empty into the Atlantic Ocean, n ...
. (Unattested.) *Amoipira / Anaupira - once spoken in the interior of the state of Bahia, from Cabrobó to the mouth of the Grande River. (Unattested.) *Abaete - once spoken in Bahia on the Abaeté River. (Unattested.) *Maromomi - dialect spoken at the old mission of São Barnabé, Rio de Janeiro. (Unattested.) *Potiguara / Petigare - dialect once spoken on the coast from the mouth of the
Paraíba do Norte River The Paraíba do Norte River, mostly known as Paraíba River, is the most important watercourse of the state of Paraíba in northeastern Brazil. The river originates in the Borborema Plateau, and flows northeast to empty into the Atlantic Ocean, n ...
to the mouth of the Parnaiba River, now spoken by a few families in the Baía da Traição, state of Paraíba. *Viatan - once spoken in the interior of the states of
Pernambuco Pernambuco () is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. With an estimated population of 9.6 million people as of 2020, making it seventh-most populous state of Brazil and with around 98,148 km², being the 19 ...
, but the exact location not recorded. (Unattested.) *Tobajara / Miarigois - once spoken in the interior of the state of Ceará on the Camocim River. (Unattested.) *Cahicahi / Caicaze / Caicai - once spoken on the lower course of the Itapecurú River, state of Maranhão. (Unattested.) *Jaguaribára - once spoken at the mouth of the Jaguaribare River, state of Ceará. (Unattested.) *Tupinambarana - once spoken on the island of the same name on the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
. (Unattested.) *Nhengahiba / Ingahiva - once spoken in the southern part of Marajó Island, Pará. (Unattested.) *Nheéngatu / Niangatú / Lingua Geral - a language spoken by the mixed population on both banks of the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
and in the past century used in intertribal and commercial relations. ;Guarani (Karani, Abañéem) dialects *Chandri / Yarri - once spoken on the Martín García Island and in the Martín Chico region, Argentina, and on the coast near San Lázaro, Paraguay. (Unattested.) *Topare - once spoken near San Gabriel, Uruguay. (Unattested.) *Cariú / Carijó - once spoken in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from
Porto Alegre Porto Alegre (, , Brazilian ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Its population of 1,488,252 inhabitants (2020) makes it the twelfth most populous city in the country and the center of Brazil's fi ...
to Antonina, state of Paraná and in the
Serra do Mar The Serra do Mar (, Portuguese for ''Sea's Ridge'' or ''Sea Ridge'') is a 1,500 km long system of mountain ranges and escarpments in Southeastern Brazil. Geography The Serra do Mar runs parallel to the Atlantic Ocean coast from the state ...
. *Arachane / Arechane - once spoken around the Lagoa dos Patos, Rio Grande do Sul. (Unattested.) *Itatin - originally spoken south of the
Apa River The Apa River (Spanish: Río Apa, Portuguese: Rio Apa) is a river of Paraguay and Brazil. It is a tributary of the Paraguay River, which in turn is a tributary of the Paraná River. It starts in the Amambai Mountains of the Brazilian state of Mat ...
, Paraguay, now by a few families on the Brilhante River, state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. (Unattested.) *Bituruna - once spoken on the São Antonio River, Peixe River, and Chopim River in the state of Paraná, Brazil. (Unattested.) *Tape - extinct dialect from the
Serra Geral The Serra Geral (General Mountains) is a mountain range in southern Brazil, constituting the southern portion of the Serra do Mar system which runs along Brazil's southeastern coast. The Serra Geral runs parallel to the Atlantic coast in Sant ...
, state of Rio Grande do Sul (Unattested.) *Apapocúva - originally spoken on the Dourados River and Amambaí River, state of Mato Grosso, later on the Itaparé River, state of São Paulo, now extinct. *Tañyguá - originally spoken on the Dourados River, Mato Grosso, later on the Aguapeí River, state of São Paulo, now extinct. (Unattested.) *Oguaíva - originally spoken in Mato Grosso, later on the
Paranapanema River The Paranapanema River (Portuguese language, Portuguese, ''Rio Paranapanema'') is one of the most important rivers of the interior of the Brazilian state of São Paulo (state), São Paulo. The river forms most of the boundary between the states of ...
, state of São Paulo. (Unattested.) *Kainguá / Painguá / Montese - language affined to Guaraní, spoken on the Jejuy River, Paraguay, and on the Aracaí River and Igatimí River, state of Paraná. Dialects are: **Baticola - once spoken in the Serra Amambaí, state of Mato Grosso. (Unattested.) **Paiguasú - spoken on the Curupaiña River, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.) **Avahuguai - spoken on the Dourados River, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.) **Yvytyiguá - spoken in the Serra do Diabo, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.) **Apiteré - spoken between the São Joaquim River and Amambaí River, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.) **Tembecua - spoken by the neighbors of the Ivitiigúa (Yvytyigua) tribe. **Chiripá - spoken on the Acaray River, Paraguay; and at the mouth of the Iguasú River, Argentina. **Mbyhá / Jeguaká Tenondé / Bwihá / Caiua / Cahygua - spoken on the Monday River, Paraguay. *Canoiero / Aba / Tiäbezä - spoken on both banks of the
Tocantins River The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
, in the central part of
Bananal Island Bananal Island ( pt, Ilha do Bananal, ) is a large river island formed from the bisection of the Araguaia River, in southwestern Tocantins, Brazil. The island is formed by a fork in a very flat section of the Araguaia River. Bananal Island is ...
and at the mouth of the Crixás River and Peixe River, state of Goiás. ;Guaranized languages *Shetá / Aré / Yvaparé - once spoken in the interior of the state of Paraná on the
Ivaí River The Ivaí River (Portuguese, Rio Ivaí) is a river of Paraná state in southern Brazil. It is a tributary of the Paraná River. Its official spelling is Ivaí, with variants including Ivahy and Ival. The river basin is ecologically very degrade ...
, now extinct. *Serra dos Dourados (tribe with unknown name) - in the Serra dos Dourados, state of Paraná. *Guayaquí / Acé - spoken by a tribe in the Cordillera de Villa Rica, Paraguay. *Notobotocudo / Pihtadyouai - language of an extinct tribe that lived at the sources of the Uruguai River and Iguasú River, state of Santa Catarina. ;Kamayurá group *Kamayurá / Camayura - spoken by a small tribe on the Ferro River in the Xingú basin, state of Mato Grosso. *Awití / Auetö / Aweti - spoken in the same region on the Culiseú River, Mato Grosso. *Arawiné - little known language from the 7 de setembro River, state of Mato Grosso. ;Tapirapé group *Tapirapé - spoken on the Tapirapé River and Naja River, Mato Grosso. *Ampaneá - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Tapirapé River, state of Mato Grosso. (Unattested.) ;Northern group *Tenetehara - language with two dialects: **Guajajára - originally spoken at the sources of the Itapecurú River and
Mearim River The Mearim River is a river in Maranhão state of northern Brazil. The river originates in the southern part of Maranhão, and drains north into the Baía de São Marcos, an estuary that also receives the Pindaré and Grajaú rivers, which are ...
, now on the Grajaú River and Pindaré River, state of Maranhão. **Tembé - originally spoken on the upper course of the Pindaré River, now on the Capiro River and Acará Pequeno River, state of Maranhão. *Guajá / Guaxara / Wazaizara / Ayaya - spoken between the Capim River and the lower course of the Gurupí River, Maranhão. *Manajé / Ararandeuára - spoken at the sources of the Bujarú River and on the Mojú River and Ararandéua River, state of Maranhão. *Manoxo / Amanaye - extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the
Mearim River The Mearim River is a river in Maranhão state of northern Brazil. The river originates in the southern part of Maranhão, and drains north into the Baía de São Marcos, an estuary that also receives the Pindaré and Grajaú rivers, which are ...
near São Bento, Maranhão. (Unattested.) *Turiwára / Turiguara - spoken originally on the Turi River, now on the Acará Grande River. *Kaapor / Urubú / Gavião - spoken by the tribe of beautiful feather workers who lived on the Gurupi River, Guama River, and Turiassú River, Maranhão. *Pocheti - once spoken on the
Araguaia River The Araguaia River ( pt, Rio Araguaia , Karajá: ♂ ''Berohokỹ'' eɾohoˈkə̃ ♀ ''Bèrakuhukỹ'' ɛɾakuhuˈkə̃ is one of the major rivers of Brazil though it is almost equal in volume at its confluence with the Tocantins. It has a tota ...
and Mojú River. (Unattested.) ;Pará group *Camboca - extinct language once spoken between the mouths of the
Tocantins River The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
and Jacundá River. (Unattested.) *Apehou - once spoken at the mouth of the Xingú River. (Unattested.) *Aratú - once spoken at the mouth of the Curuá River. (Unattested.) *Mapua - once spoken on Marajó Island on the
Mapuá River The Mapuá River ( pt, Rio Mapuá) is a river of Pará state in north-central Brazil. It is a left tributary of the Aramá River. Course The Mapuá River rises on the island of Marajó in the delta region where the Amazon and Tocantins Toca ...
. (Unattested.) *Anajá - once spoken on Marajó Island on the Anajás River. (Unattested.) *Camarapim - once spoken at the mouth of the Pacajá River. (Unattested.) *Uanapú - once spoken on the Anapú River. (Unattested.) *Coaní - once spoken at the mouth of the Xingú River. (Unattested.) *Mamayaná - once spoken to the south of the mouth of the Anapú River. (Unattested.) *Pacajá - once spoken between the Pacajá River and Anapú River. *Jacunda - once spoken on the Jacundá River. (Villa Real 1848, p. 432, only two words.) *Parakanã - spoken between the
Tocantins River The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
and Pacajá River by an almost unknown tribe. *Anambé - once spoken on the left bank of the
Tocantins River The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
near Rebojo de Guariba, now extinct. *Caranbú - spoken by the unknown neighbors of the Anambé tribe. (Unattested.) *Tapirauha / Cupelobo / Kupẽ-rob / Jandiaí - spoken by only a few individuals on the Igarapé do Bacurí and west of the Cachoeira de Itaboca. *Anta - once spoken by the neighbors of the Tapirauha tribe. (Unattested.) *Tacayuna - once spoken on the Tacaiuna River. (Unattested.) *Asurini - spoken by the totally unknown tribe that lived between the upper course of the Xingú River, and the Freso River and Pacajá River. (Unattested.) *Mudzyetíre - a Cayapó name for an unknown Tupi tribe that lived on the Igarapé Sororosinho. (Unattested.) *Tacuñapé / Eidum / Péua - extinct language once spoken on the
Iriri River The Iriri River ( pt, Rio Iriri, ; Mẽbêngôkre: ''Kororoti'', ) is a large tributary of the Xingu River in Brazil, in the state of Pará. It is long making it the 116th longest river in the world (with Krishna River, India) and the 15th long ...
and Novo River. (only a few words.) *Tacumandícai / Caras Pretas - language of a very little known tribe that lived on the lower course of the Xingú River. *Jauari - extinct language once spoken on the Vermelho River and
Araguaia River The Araguaia River ( pt, Rio Araguaia , Karajá: ♂ ''Berohokỹ'' eɾohoˈkə̃ ♀ ''Bèrakuhukỹ'' ɛɾakuhuˈkə̃ is one of the major rivers of Brazil though it is almost equal in volume at its confluence with the Tocantins. It has a tota ...
. (Unattested.) *Zapucaya - once spoken between the Amazon and Paraná do Urariá Rivers. (Unattested.) *Tapajó - once spoken at the mouth of the
Tapajós River The Tapajós ( pt, Rio Tapajós ) is a river in Brazil. It runs through the Amazon Rainforest and is a major tributary of the Amazon River. When combined with the Juruena River, the Tapajós is approximately long. It is one of the largest clea ...
(cf. Amazonas group). (Unattested.) *Auacachi - once spoken at the mouth of the Auacachi River. (Unattested.) *Papateruana - once spoken in a part of Tupinambarana Island on the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
. (Unattested.) ;Guiana group *Oyampi / Wayapí / Guayapi - originally spoken on the lower course of the Xingú River, later on the
Oiapoque River The Oyapock or Oiapoque (; ; ) is a long river in South America that forms most of the border between the French overseas department of French Guiana and the Brazilian state of Amapá. Course The Oyapock runs through the Guianan moist for ...
in the territory of Amapá, in French Guiana, now on the Maroni River. *Tamacom - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Jarí River and at the sources of the Maracá River, Pará. (Unattested.) *Cusari / Coussani - once spoken on the upper course of the Araguarí River, territory of Amapá. (Unattested.) *Paikipiranga / Parixi - spoken at the sources of the Maracá River, Pará. *Calayua - once spoken at the sources of the Inipucú River, Pará. (Unattested.) *Apama - spoken by a few individuals on the Maecurú River, Pará. (Unattested.) *Emerillon / Teko / Emereñon / Marêyo - spoken by only a few families on the
Approuague River The Approuague river (or Apuruaque in Tupi) is a major river in French Guiana. It is long. It runs north from the Tumuk Humak Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean, almost parallel with the Oyapock, with its mouth by the Pointe Béhague cape. The A ...
, Camopi River, Inini River, Coureni River, and Araoua River, French Guiana. *Caripuna / Calipurn - language spoken on the Curipi River, Pará, by the mixed population of diverse origin. (Unattested.) ;Southern group *Apiacá - originally spoken between the
Arinos River The Arinos River is a river in Brazil. It is located east of, and empties into, the Juruena River. Some of the Suyá Indians, a Gê-speaking people of central Brazil, migrated from the state of Maranhão Maranhão () is a state in Brazil. ...
and Juruena River, now on the São Manoel River and
Ronuro River The Ronuro River is a river of Mato Grosso state in western Brazil, a tributary of the Xingu River. The river drains the Rio Ronuro Ecological Station, a strictly protected conservation unit created in 1998. It also flows through the Xingu Indi ...
, and on the upper course of the
Tapajós River The Tapajós ( pt, Rio Tapajós ) is a river in Brazil. It runs through the Amazon Rainforest and is a major tributary of the Amazon River. When combined with the Juruena River, the Tapajós is approximately long. It is one of the largest clea ...
, Mato Grosso. *Tapañuna - language of a very little known tribe that lived between the Tapanhuna River and Peixe River, state of Mato Grosso. (Unattested.) *Timaóna - language of an unknown tribe from the Peixe River. (Unattested.) *Raipé-Sisi / Aipé-Chichi - once spoken between the
Arinos River The Arinos River is a river in Brazil. It is located east of, and empties into, the Juruena River. Some of the Suyá Indians, a Gê-speaking people of central Brazil, migrated from the state of Maranhão Maranhão () is a state in Brazil. ...
and São Manoel River. (Unattested.) *Makirí - spoken at the mouth of the São Manoel River. *Pariuaia - spoken at the sources of the Barati River. (Unattested.) *Kayabí / Parua - spoken on the lower course of the Verde River and on the Paranatina River. *Kawahyb / Cabahyba / Kawahíwa - originally spoken in the tropical forests west of the upper course of the
Tocantins River The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
, later on the
Ji-Paraná River The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
and Marmelos River, Pará. *Dialects: *Parintintin / Nakazetí / Itoehebe - spoken between the Madeira River and Maiçí River, Pará. *Wiraféd / Tupi do rio Machado - spoken on the
Machado River Machado is a surname of Portuguese origin meaning the word "axe" or "hatchet" dating back to approximately 2nd century Europe. It is commonly found in Portugal, Spain, Brazil and Latin America, and India (Southern Tamil Nadu and Southern Kerala) d ...
. *Pauaté - once spoken at the sources of the Zinho River. (Unattested.) *Paranawát - spoken at the mouth of the
Muqui River Muqui may refer to * Muki (Lima), also spelled ''Muqui'', a mountain in the Lima Region, Peru * Muki (mythology), also spelled ''Mooqui'' or ''Muqui'', a mythological figure in the Andes * Muqui District, a district in Peru * Muqui, Espírito S ...
. (Unattested.) *Mialat - spoken on the middle course of the
Machado River Machado is a surname of Portuguese origin meaning the word "axe" or "hatchet" dating back to approximately 2nd century Europe. It is commonly found in Portugal, Spain, Brazil and Latin America, and India (Southern Tamil Nadu and Southern Kerala) d ...
. (Unattested.) *Takwatíp / Tacuatepe - spoken at the confluence of the
Ji-Paraná River The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
and
Pimenta Bueno River The Pimenta Bueno River is a river of Rondônia Rondônia () is one of the 26 states of Brazil, located in the northern subdivision of the country (central-western part). To the west is a short border with the state of Acre, to the north is t ...
. *Tukumaféd - spoken on the middle course of the
Machado River Machado is a surname of Portuguese origin meaning the word "axe" or "hatchet" dating back to approximately 2nd century Europe. It is commonly found in Portugal, Spain, Brazil and Latin America, and India (Southern Tamil Nadu and Southern Kerala) d ...
. (Unattested.) *Ipoteuate - spoken on the
Ji-Paraná River The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
. (Unattested.) *Apairandé - spoken between the
Ji-Paraná River The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
and Maiçí River. (Unattested.) *Jabotiféd - spoken on a tributary of the
Machado River Machado is a surname of Portuguese origin meaning the word "axe" or "hatchet" dating back to approximately 2nd century Europe. It is commonly found in Portugal, Spain, Brazil and Latin America, and India (Southern Tamil Nadu and Southern Kerala) d ...
, east of the Ipoteuate tribe. (Unattested.) *Dawahib / Bocas Pretas - spoken on the Anarí River, Rondônia. *Jaguarúb - spoken south of the Paranawát tribe. (Unattested.) *Hamno - spoken in the same region as Jaguarúb. (Unattested.) *Sanenäre - spoken in the same region as Jaguarúb, but exact location uncertain. (Unattested.) *Majubim - spoken at the confluence of the
Pimenta Bueno River The Pimenta Bueno River is a river of Rondônia Rondônia () is one of the 26 states of Brazil, located in the northern subdivision of the country (central-western part). To the west is a short border with the state of Acre, to the north is t ...
and
Ji-Paraná River The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
. (Unattested.) *Catuquinarú - language of a Tupinized Katukina tribe, spoken on the Embira River, Amazonas. ;Amazonas group *Omagua / Campeua / Carari - originally spoken along the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
between the mouth of the
Juruá River The Juruá River (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristic ...
and the mouth of the
Napo River The Napo River ( es, Río Napo) is a tributary to the Amazon River that rises in Ecuador on the flanks of the east Andean volcanoes of Antisana, Sincholagua and Cotopaxi. The total length is . The river drains an area of . The mean annual disch ...
, now in only a few villages. *Yurimagua / Yoriman - once spoken along the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
from the mouth of the
Jutaí River The Jutaí River ( pt, Rio Jutaí) is a river in Amazonas state in north-western Brazil. Course The river flows through the Juruá-Purus moist forests ecoregion. The Jutaí river runs northeast before reaching its mouth on the southern bank o ...
to the mouth, of the Purus River, now spoken by only a few of the mixed population in the city of
Yurimaguas Yurimaguas is a port town in the Loreto Region of the northeastern Peruvian Amazon. Historically associated with the Mainas missions, the culturally diverse town is affectionately known as the "Pearl of the Huallaga" (''Perla del Huallaga''). Yu ...
, Peru. (Unattested.) *Aizuare - once spoken from the mouth of the
Juruá River The Juruá River (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristic ...
to the mouth of the Japura River. (Unattested.) *Ibanoma / Bonama - spoken on the right bank of the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
from the mouth of the Purus River to the mouth of the
Juruá River The Juruá River (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristic ...
; now totally extinct. (Unattested.) *Tapajó - once spoken at the mouth of the
Tapajós River The Tapajós ( pt, Rio Tapajós ) is a river in Brazil. It runs through the Amazon Rainforest and is a major tributary of the Amazon River. When combined with the Juruena River, the Tapajós is approximately long. It is one of the largest clea ...
(cf. Pará group). (Unattested.) *Awakachi - once spoken at the mouth of the Auacachi River. (Unattested.) *Papateruana - once spoken in a part of the Tupinambarana Island on the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
. (Unattested.) *Paguana - once spoken along the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
from the mouth of the Cafua River to the mouth of the
Tefé River The Tefé River (Teffé River in early accounts; pt, Rio Tefé) is a tributary of the Amazon River ( Solimões section) in Amazonas state in north-western Brazil. The Tefé River flows through the Juruá-Purus moist forests ecoregion. It form ...
. (Unattested.) *Cocama - language spoken on a great lagoon on the left bank of the Ucayali River and near the city of
Nauta Nauta is a town in the northeastern part of Loreto Province in the Peruvian Amazon, roughly south of Iquitos, the provincial capital. Nauta is located on the north bank of the Marañón River, a major tributary of the Upper Amazon, a few miles ...
, Peru. *Cocamilla - spoken on the lower course of the
Huallaga River The Huallaga River is a tributary of the Marañón River, part of the Amazon Basin. Old names for this river include ''Guallaga'' and ''Rio de los Motilones''. The Huallaga is born on the slopes of the Andes in central Peru and joins the Marañó ...
, Peru. (Tessmann 1930, p. 82.) *Yeté - once spoken on the Tiputini River, Loreto province, Peru. (Unattested.) *Jibitaona - once spoken near the city of Santiago de las Montañas, Peru. (Unattested.) ;Chiriguano group *Chiriguano / Camba - spoken in the Bolivian Andes in the Serranía de Aguarugue and in the western part of the Bolivian Chaco, in Sara Province and on the upper course of the
Bermejo River The Bermejo River (Spanish, Río Bermejo) is a river in South America that flows from Bolivia to the Paraguay River in Argentina. The river is generally called Bermejo in spite of its different names along its way, but it also has its own Nati ...
. Now only in the Carandaiti Valley and around
Tarabuco Tarabuco is a Bolivian town in the department of Chuquisaca, capital of the Yamparáez Province and its first section, Tarabuco Municipality. It is best known as the home of the Yampara culture. Its people host the Pujllay festival in March ea ...
. *Guarayo - spoken at the sources of the Blanco River and on the San Miguel River, now in the missions of Yotaú, San Pablo, and Yaguarú, province of Santa Cruz, Bolivia. *Pauserna / Moperecoa / Warádu-nëe - originally spoken on the Paragúa River and Tarbo River, Bolivia, now by only a few individuals on the Verde River, a tributary of the
Guaporé River Guaporé River ( pt, Rio Guaporé, es, Río Iténez) is a river in western Brazil and northeastern Bolivia. It is long; of the river forms the border between Brazil and Bolivia. The Guaporé River is part of the Madeira River basin, which ev ...
, Mato Grosso. *Tapieté / Kurukwá / Yanaygua / Parapiti - spoken on the upper course of the
Pilcomayo River Pilcomayo (in Hispanicized spelling) (Quechua Pillkumayu or Pillku Mayu, ''pillku'' red, ''mayu'' river, "red river", Guarani Ysyry Araguay ) is a river in central South America. At long, it is the longest western tributary of the Paraguay Rive ...
and on the Parapití River, Paraguayan Chaco *Izozo / Chané - spoken on the Itiyuro River in the Campo y Durán and on the Parepetí River, Chaco. *Siriono / Chori - language of a very primitive tribe in central Bolivia, especially in the tropical forests on the Ichillo River and Grande River, between the Blanco River and Yapacaní River, between the Ivari River and Quimore River, between the upper course of the Ivari River and Grande River, between the Piray River and Itonama River, and between the
Beni River The Beni River ( es, Río Beni) is a river in the north of Bolivia. It rises north of La Paz and flows northeast. The Madre de Dios River is where its mouth is at. In the upper portion of its course it flows through highland forest and rainforest, ...
and
Mamoré River The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
. *Dialects: *Tirinié - spoken on the
Mamoré River The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
. *Ñeozé - spoken on the Grande River and
Mamoré River The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
. *Yandé - spoken on the
Mamoré River The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
. (Unattested.) *Jora - once spoken around the Laguna Jorá near the city of
Baures Baures is a village in Iténez Province, Beni Department, in northern Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the ...
. ;Mawé group *Mawé / Mauhé / Mague - originally spoken on the Tapajós Mataura River, Maué-assú River, Arapiuns River, Arichi River, and Tracuá River, in the state of Pará, now on the Uaicurapá River. *Arapiyú / Aripuana - once spoken at the mouth of the Arapiuns River. (Unattested.) *Andirá - once spoken south of Tupinambarana Island on the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
. (Unattested.) *Igapuitariara - once spoken at the sources of the Curauaí River. (Unattested.) *Curiato - once spoken at the mouth of the Maricauá River. (Unattested.) *Sapupé / Sacopé - once spoken on the Bararatí River. (Unattested.) *Maraguá - extinct language once spoken on the right bank of the
Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of ...
, south of the Condurí tribe. (Unattested.)


Proto-language


Schleicher (1998)

The following reconstructions of Proto-Tupi-Guarani are from Schleicher (1998):


Lemle (1971)

The following reconstructions of Proto-Tupi-Guarani are from Lemle (1971):Lemle, Miriam. 1971. Internal classification of the Tupi-Guarani linguistic family. In David Bendor-Samuel (ed.), ''Tupi studies I'', 107-129. Norman: Summer Institute of Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma.


See also

*
Tupí people A subdivision of the Tupi-Guarani linguistic families, the Tupi people were one of the largest groups of indigenous Brazilians before its colonization. Scholars believe that while they first settled in the Amazon rainforest, from about 2,90 ...
(Tupinambá) * Guaraní people * Urubú–Kaapor Sign Language


References


Bibliography

*Michael, Lev, Natalia Chousou-Polydouri, Keith Bartolomei, Erin Donnelly, Vivian Wauters, Sérgio Meira, Zachary O'Hagan. 2015
A Bayesian Phylogenetic Classification of Tupí-Guaraní
''LIAMES'' 15(2):193-221. *O'Hagan, Zachary, Natalia Chousou-Polydouri, Lev Michael. 2019
Phylogenetic classification supports a Northeastern Amazonian Proto-Tupí-Guaraní homeland
''LIAMES'', Campinas, SP, v. 19, 1-29, e019018, 2019. . *


Further reading

* Gerardi, Fabrício Ferraz; Reichert, Stanislav. "The Tupí-Guaraní language family: A phylogenetic classification". In: ''Diachronica''. Available online: 01 February 2021. OI: https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.18032.fer


External links


Swadesh lists of Tupi–Guarani basic vocabulary words
(from Wiktionary'
Swadesh-list appendix


{{DEFAULTSORT:Tupi-Guarani Languages Verb–subject–object languages Indigenous languages of South America (Central)