Tupi–Guarani () is the most widely distributed subfamily of the
Tupian languages
The Tupi or Tupian language family comprises some 70 languages spoken in South America, of which the best known are Tupi proper and Guarani.
Homeland and ''urheimat''
Rodrigues (2007) considers the Proto-Tupian urheimat to be somewhere betwee ...
of
South America. It consists of about fifty languages, including
Guarani and
Old Tupi
Old Tupi, Ancient Tupi or Classical Tupi (also spelled as Tupí) is an extinct Tupian language which was spoken by the aboriginal Tupi people of Brazil, mostly those who inhabited coastal regions in South and Southeast Brazil. It belongs to t ...
.
The words ''
petunia
''Petunia'' is genus of 20 species of flowering plants of South American origin. The popular flower of the same name derived its epithet from the French, which took the word ''petun'', meaning "tobacco," from a Tupi–Guarani language. A tend ...
,
jaguar,
piranha,
ipecac
Syrup of ipecac (), or simply ipecac, is a drug that was once widely used as an expectorant (in low doses) and a rapid-acting emetic (in higher doses). It is obtained from the dried rhizome and roots of the ipecacuanha plant ('' Carapichea ipec ...
,
tapioca
Tapioca (; ) is a starch extracted from the storage roots of the cassava plant (''Manihot esculenta,'' also known as manioc), a species native to the North and Northeast regions of Brazil, but whose use is now spread throughout South America ...
,
jacaranda,
anhinga,
carioca
Carioca ( or ) is a demonym used to refer to anything related to the City of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. The original meaning of the term is controversial, maybe from Tupi language "''kari' oka''", meaning "white house" as the whitewashed stone ...
'', and ''
capoeira
Capoeira () is an Afro-Brazilian martial art that combines elements of dance, acrobatics, music and spirituality. Born of the melting pot of enslaved Africans, Indigenous Brazilians and Portuguese influences at the beginning of the 16th century ...
'' are of Tupi–Guarani origin.
Classification
Rodrigues & Cabral (2012)
Rodrigues & Cabral (2012) propose eight branches of Tupí–Guaraní:
*
Guaraní (Group I)
*
Guarayu (Group II):
Guarayu,
Pauserna**,
Sirionó (dialects: Yuqui, Jorá**)
*
Tupí
Tupí, also known as ''formatge de tupí'', is a fermented cheese of a certain area of the Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees made from cows' or sheep's milk.
It is a cheese traditionally prepared in the mountainous Pallars region, as well as in the Cerd ...
(Group III):
Old Tupi
Old Tupi, Ancient Tupi or Classical Tupi (also spelled as Tupí) is an extinct Tupian language which was spoken by the aboriginal Tupi people of Brazil, mostly those who inhabited coastal regions in South and Southeast Brazil. It belongs to t ...
(lingua franca dialect:
Tupí Austral
Tupí, also known as ''formatge de tupí'', is a fermented cheese of a certain area of the Pyrenees and Pre-Pyrenees made from cows' or sheep's milk.
It is a cheese traditionally prepared in the mountainous Pallars region, as well as in the Cerd ...
), Tupinambá (dialects:
Nheengatu,
Língua Geral
Língua Geral (, ''General Language'') is the name of two distinct lingua francas, spoken in Brazil: the '' Língua Geral Paulista'' (''Tupi Austral'', or Southern Tupi), which was spoken in the region of Paulistania but is now dead, and the '' L� ...
as lingua franca, and
Potiguára),
Cocama–
Omagua
Omagua or low jungle (''selva baja'' or partially '' tierra caliente'') is one of the eightPulgar Vidal, Javier: Geografía del Perú; Las Ocho Regiones Naturales del Perú. Edit. Universo S.A., Lima 1979. First Edition (his dissertation of 1940): ...
*,
Tupinikin**
*
Tenetehara (Group IV):
Akwáwa (dialects: Asuriní, Suruí do Pará, Parakanã),
Avá-Canoeiro,
Tapirapé,
Tenetehára (dialects:
Guajajara, Tembé),
Turiwára
*
Kawahíb (Group VI):
Apiacá,
Kawahíb (numerous varieties; incl. Piripkúra, Diahói?),
Kayabí,
Karipúna, ?
Uru-Pa-In
*''
Kamayurá'' (Group VII)
*
Xingu (Group VIIIa):
Anambé (of Cairarí),
Amanayé,
Xingú Asuriní,
Araweté,
Aurá,
Ararandewara
*
Northern Tupi–Guaraní (Group VIIIb):
Anambé of Ehrenreich,
Emerillon,
Guajá,
Wayampi
The Wayampi or Wayãpi are an indigenous people located in the south-eastern border area of French Guiana at the confluence of the rivers Camopi and Oyapock, and the basins of the Amapari and Carapanatuba Rivers in the central part of the state ...
,
Zo'é
The Zo'é people are a native tribe in the State of Pará, Municipality of Óbidos, on the Cuminapanema River, Brazil. They are a Tupi–Guarani people.
Name
They are also known as the Poturu, Poturujara, or Buré. The term "Zo'é" means "us ...
,
Takunyapé,
Urubú–Kaapor,
Wayampipukú
*Cabral argues that Kokama/Omagua is a
mixed language
A mixed language is a language that arises among a bilingual group combining aspects of two or more languages but not clearly deriving primarily from any single language. It differs from a creole or pidgin language in that, whereas creoles/pidgin ...
, and so not directly classifiable, though most of its basic vocabulary is Tupi–Guarani.
**Not listed in Rodrigues & Cabral (2012)
Karipuna language (Amapá) may be spurious.
Sound changes from
Proto-Tupi-Guarani (PTG) defining each of the 8 Tupi-Guarani groups as listed by Rodrigues & Cabral (2002):
[Rodrigues, A. D.; Cabral, A. S. A. C. Revendo a classificação interna da família Tupí-Guaraní. In: CABRAL, A. S. A. C., RODRIGUES, A. D. (Orgs.). ''Línguas indígenas brasileiras: fonologia, gramática e história''. Tomo I. Belém: UFPA/EDUFPA, p. 327-337, 2002.]
:
Michael, et al. (2015)
Michael, et al. (2015) propose the following classification for the Tupi-Guarani languages.
;Tupí-Guaraní
*
Kamaiurá (600 speakers)
*Nuclear Tupí-Guaraní
**
Northern
Northern may refer to the following:
Geography
* North, a point in direction
* Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe
* Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States
* Northern Province, Sri Lanka
* Northern Range, a r ...
***
Guajá (280 speakers)
***
Ka'ápor (800 speakers)
***
Avá-Canoeiro (14 speakers)
**
Central
Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object.
Central may also refer to:
Directions and generalised locations
* Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known a ...
***(branch)
****
Anambé,
Araweté (Anambé 6 speakers, Araweté 280 speakers)
****
Xingú Asurini (120 speakers)
***(branch)
****
Tocantins Asuriní,
Parakanã (700-1,500 speakers)
****
Tapirapé (560 speakers)
**Peripheral
***
Wayampi
The Wayampi or Wayãpi are an indigenous people located in the south-eastern border area of French Guiana at the confluence of the rivers Camopi and Oyapock, and the basins of the Amapari and Carapanatuba Rivers in the central part of the state ...
,
Emerillon (Wayampi 1,200 speakers, Emerillon 400 speakers)
***
Kayabí,
Parintintin (Kayabí 1,000 speakers, Kagwahiva 870 speakers)
***Diasporic
****
Tembé
The Tembé, also Timbé and Tenetehara, are an indigenous people of Brazil, living along the Maranhão and Gurupi Rivers, in the state of Amazonas and Pará. Their lands have been encroached and settled by farmers and loggers, who do so illeg ...
(13,000 speakers)
****(Diasporic core branch)
*****
Tupi
******
Omagua
Omagua or low jungle (''selva baja'' or partially '' tierra caliente'') is one of the eightPulgar Vidal, Javier: Geografía del Perú; Las Ocho Regiones Naturales del Perú. Edit. Universo S.A., Lima 1979. First Edition (his dissertation of 1940): ...
,
Kokama (Omagua 10 speakers, Cocama 250 speakers)
******
Tupinambá (Nheengatu 19,000 speakers)
*****Southern
******
Sirionó,
Yuki (500 speakers)
******
Guarayu,
Pauserna † (Guarayu 5,900 speakers)
******
Guaranian
*******
Aché (910 speakers)
*******
Mbyá
*******
Paraguay Guaraní (4.85 million speakers)
*******(branch)
********
Xetá †,
Kaiowá,
Ñandeva (Kaiwá 18,000 speakers, Ava Guarani 16,000 speakers)
********
Tapiete,
Chiriguano
The Ava Guaraní are an Indigenous peoples formerly known as Chiriguanos or Chiriguano Indians who speak the Ava Guarani and Eastern Bolivian Guaraní languages. Noted for their warlike character, the Chiriguanos retained their lands in the And ...
(Chiriguano 51,000 speakers)
O'Hagan et al. (2014,
2019) proposes that Proto-Tupi-Guarani was spoken in the region of the lower
Tocantins and
Xingu Rivers, just to the south of
Marajó Island in eastern
Pará State, Brazil. Proto-Omagua-Kokama then expanded up the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
, Proto-
Tupinambá expanded south along the Atlantic coast, and the Southern branch expanded up along the Tocantins/
Araguaia River
The Araguaia River ( pt, Rio Araguaia , Karajá: ♂ ''Berohokỹ'' eɾohoˈkə̃ ♀ ''Bèrakuhukỹ'' ɛɾakuhuˈkə̃ is one of the major rivers of Brazil though it is almost equal in volume at its confluence with the Tocantins. It has a tota ...
towards the
Paraná River basin.
Jolkesky (2016)
Below is an internal classification of Tupi-Guarani by Jolkesky (2016), which is largely based on Michael, et al. (2015):
[Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016. ]
Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas
'. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Brasília
The University of Brasília ( pt, Universidade de Brasília, UnB) is a federal public university in Brasília, the capital of Brazil. It was founded in 1960 and has since consistently been named among the top five Brazilian universities and the ...
.
(† = extinct)
;Tupi-Guarani branch
*Kamayura: ''
Kamayura''
*Kaapor-Ava
**Ava-Canoeiro: ''
Ava-Canoeiro''
**
Kaapor: ''
Anambe'' †; ''
Aura''; ''
Guaja''; ''
Takuñape'' †; ''
Urubu-Kaapor''
*
Akwawa-Arawete
**Akwawa-Tapirape
***Akwawa: ''
Asurini do Tocantins''; ''
Parakanã''; ''
Surui'' (Tupi-Guarani)
***Tapirape: ''
Tapirape''
**Arawete-Asurini
***Arawete: ''
Amanaye'' †; ''
Anambe''; ''
Ararandewara'' †; ''
Arawete''
***Asurini do Xingu: ''
Asurini do Xingu''
*Nuclear Tupi-Guarani
**
Tenetehara: ''
Guajajara''; ''
Tembe''; ''
Turiwara'' †
**
Kawahib-Kayabi
***Apiaka: ''
Apiaka''
***Juma: ''
Juma''
***Kayabi: ''
Kayabi''
***Kawahib: ''
Amondawa''; ''
Karipuna'' (Tupi); ''
Parintintin''; ''
Piripkura''; ''
Tukumanfed'' †; ''
Uruewauwau''; ''
Wirafed''
**Diasporic Tupi-Guarani
***Guarani-Guarayu-Siriono
****
Guarayu: ''
Guarayu''; ''
Pauserna''
****Siriono: ''
Siriono''; ''
Jora'' †; ''
Yuki''
****
Guarani
*****Ache: ''
Ache''
*****Guarani: ''
Guarani, Classical'' †; ''
Chiriguano
The Ava Guaraní are an Indigenous peoples formerly known as Chiriguanos or Chiriguano Indians who speak the Ava Guarani and Eastern Bolivian Guaraní languages. Noted for their warlike character, the Chiriguanos retained their lands in the And ...
''; ''
Chiripa''
*****Central: ''
Guarani Paraguaio''
*****Western: ''
Guarani Boliviano''; ''
Tapiete''
*****Eastern: ''
Kayowa''; ''
Mbya''; ''
Ñandeva''; ''
Pai Tavytera''; ''
Sheta''
***
Tupinamba-Kokama
****Kokama-Omagua: ''
Kokama''; ''
Kokamilla''; ''
Omagua
Omagua or low jungle (''selva baja'' or partially '' tierra caliente'') is one of the eightPulgar Vidal, Javier: Geografía del Perú; Las Ocho Regiones Naturales del Perú. Edit. Universo S.A., Lima 1979. First Edition (his dissertation of 1940): ...
''
****Tupi: ''
Tupi'' †; ''
Tupi Austral'' †
****Tupinamba: ''
Nhengatu''; ''
Tupinamba'' †
****Wayampi: ''
Emerillon''; ''
Wayampi
The Wayampi or Wayãpi are an indigenous people located in the south-eastern border area of French Guiana at the confluence of the rivers Camopi and Oyapock, and the basins of the Amapari and Carapanatuba Rivers in the central part of the state ...
''; ''
Zo'e''
Ferraz and Reichert (2021)
The following is an approximation of the results of a computational phylogenetic study of the Tupí-Guaraní languages by Ferraz and Reichert (2021).
;Tupí-Guaraní
*Guajá–Tenetehara
**Guajá; Tembé, Guajajara
*Guaraní
**Warazu
**Xetá
**Guayaki; Tapiete, Chiriguano
**Guaraní; Kaiowá, Mbyá
**Guarayo; Sirionó, Yuki
*Tupi
**Tupinambá; Nheengatu, Ka'apor (Urubu-Kaapor)
*Northern
**Kamayura; Anambé, Araweté
**Avá–Wayampí?
***Avá-Canoeiro
***Wayampí Jarí; Emerillon, Wayampí
*Central
**Asurini Xingu
**Akwawa–Tapirapé
***Apiaká; Suruí; Tapirapé; Parakanã, Asurini
**Kawahib
***Kayabi
***Parintintin, Tenharim
***Amondava, Urueuwauwau
Varieties
Below is a list of Tupi–Guarani language varieties listed by
Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.
;Tupi (Abañeénga) dialects
*Tamoyo - once spoken from the
Cabo de São Tomé
The Cabo de São Tomé is a peninsula in the state of Rio de Janeiro, on the coast of southeastern Brazil. It is 40 km southeast of the city of Campos dos Goytacazes. Further southeast is Cabo Frio
Cabo Frio (, ''Cold Cape'') is a tourist ...
to
Angra dos Reis
Angra dos Reis (; Portuguese for ''cove'' or ''bay of the Kings'') is a Brazilian municipality located in the southern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro. The city is located by the sea and includes in its territory many offshore islands, the l ...
, state of Rio de Janeiro. (Unattested.)
*Ararape - once spoken on the
Paraíba do Sul River
Paraíba ( Tupi: ''pa'ra a'íba''; ) is a state of Brazil. It is located in the Brazilian Northeast, and it is bordered by Rio Grande do Norte to the north, Ceará to the west, Pernambuco to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Paraíba ...
in the state of Rio de Janeiro. (Unattested.)
*Temimino - once spoken on the coast of the state of Espirito Santo. (Unattested.)
*Tupiniquin / Margaya - once spoken on the coast from Espirito Santo as far as
Camamu
Camamu is a municipality in the state of Bahia, Brazil. Politically, it is in the Valença subregion of the Sul Baiano region. It is located on the southern coast of Bahia state, the Costa do Dendê (Palm Coast), along the BA-001 highway. The muni ...
, state of Bahia.
*Tupinamba - formerly spoken on the coast from
Camamu
Camamu is a municipality in the state of Bahia, Brazil. Politically, it is in the Valença subregion of the Sul Baiano region. It is located on the southern coast of Bahia state, the Costa do Dendê (Palm Coast), along the BA-001 highway. The muni ...
as far as the mouth of the
São Francisco River, later on the coast in the state of Maranhão.
*Tupina - once spoken in the interior of the state of Bahia. (Unattested.)
*Caeté / Caité - once spoken on the coast from the mouth of the
São Francisco River to the mouth of the
Paraíba do Norte River
The Paraíba do Norte River, mostly known as Paraíba River, is the most important watercourse of the state of Paraíba in northeastern Brazil. The river originates in the Borborema Plateau, and flows northeast to empty into the Atlantic Ocean, n ...
. (Unattested.)
*Amoipira / Anaupira - once spoken in the interior of the state of Bahia, from
Cabrobó to the mouth of the
Grande River. (Unattested.)
*Abaete - once spoken in Bahia on the
Abaeté River. (Unattested.)
*Maromomi - dialect spoken at the old mission of
São Barnabé,
Rio de Janeiro. (Unattested.)
*Potiguara / Petigare - dialect once spoken on the coast from the mouth of the
Paraíba do Norte River
The Paraíba do Norte River, mostly known as Paraíba River, is the most important watercourse of the state of Paraíba in northeastern Brazil. The river originates in the Borborema Plateau, and flows northeast to empty into the Atlantic Ocean, n ...
to the mouth of the
Parnaiba River, now spoken by a few families in the
Baía da Traição, state of Paraíba.
*Viatan - once spoken in the interior of the states of
Pernambuco
Pernambuco () is a state of Brazil, located in the Northeast region of the country. With an estimated population of 9.6 million people as of 2020, making it seventh-most populous state of Brazil and with around 98,148 km², being the 19 ...
, but the exact location not recorded. (Unattested.)
*Tobajara / Miarigois - once spoken in the interior of the state of Ceará on the
Camocim River. (Unattested.)
*Cahicahi / Caicaze / Caicai - once spoken on the lower course of the
Itapecurú River, state of Maranhão. (Unattested.)
*Jaguaribára - once spoken at the mouth of the
Jaguaribare River, state of Ceará. (Unattested.)
*Tupinambarana - once spoken on the island of the same name on the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
. (Unattested.)
*Nhengahiba / Ingahiva - once spoken in the southern part of
Marajó Island, Pará. (Unattested.)
*Nheéngatu / Niangatú / Lingua Geral - a language spoken by the mixed population on both banks of the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
and in the past century used in intertribal and commercial relations.
;Guarani (Karani, Abañéem) dialects
*Chandri / Yarri - once spoken on the
Martín García Island and in the
Martín Chico region, Argentina, and on the coast near
San Lázaro, Paraguay. (Unattested.)
*Topare - once spoken near
San Gabriel, Uruguay. (Unattested.)
*Cariú / Carijó - once spoken in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, from
Porto Alegre
Porto Alegre (, , Brazilian ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Its population of 1,488,252 inhabitants (2020) makes it the twelfth most populous city in the country and the center of Brazil's fi ...
to
Antonina, state of Paraná and in the
Serra do Mar
The Serra do Mar (, Portuguese for ''Sea's Ridge'' or ''Sea Ridge'') is a 1,500 km long system of mountain ranges and escarpments in Southeastern Brazil.
Geography
The Serra do Mar runs parallel to the Atlantic Ocean coast from the state ...
.
*Arachane / Arechane - once spoken around the
Lagoa dos Patos, Rio Grande do Sul. (Unattested.)
*Itatin - originally spoken south of the
Apa River
The Apa River (Spanish: Río Apa, Portuguese: Rio Apa) is a river of Paraguay and Brazil. It is a tributary of the Paraguay River, which in turn is a tributary of the Paraná River. It starts in the Amambai Mountains of the Brazilian state of Mat ...
, Paraguay, now by a few families on the
Brilhante River, state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. (Unattested.)
*Bituruna - once spoken on the
São Antonio River,
Peixe River, and
Chopim River in the state of Paraná, Brazil. (Unattested.)
*Tape - extinct dialect from the
Serra Geral
The Serra Geral (General Mountains) is a mountain range in southern Brazil, constituting the southern portion of the Serra do Mar system which runs along Brazil's southeastern coast. The Serra Geral runs parallel to the Atlantic coast in Sant ...
, state of Rio Grande do Sul (Unattested.)
*Apapocúva - originally spoken on the
Dourados River and
Amambaí River, state of Mato Grosso, later on the
Itaparé River, state of São Paulo, now extinct.
*Tañyguá - originally spoken on the
Dourados River, Mato Grosso, later on the
Aguapeí River, state of São Paulo, now extinct. (Unattested.)
*Oguaíva - originally spoken in Mato Grosso, later on the
Paranapanema River
The Paranapanema River (Portuguese language, Portuguese, ''Rio Paranapanema'') is one of the most important rivers of the interior of the Brazilian state of São Paulo (state), São Paulo. The river forms most of the boundary between the states of ...
, state of São Paulo. (Unattested.)
*Kainguá / Painguá / Montese - language affined to Guaraní, spoken on the
Jejuy River, Paraguay, and on the
Aracaí River and
Igatimí River, state of Paraná. Dialects are:
**Baticola - once spoken in the
Serra Amambaí, state of Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
**Paiguasú - spoken on the
Curupaiña River, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
**Avahuguai - spoken on the
Dourados River, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
**Yvytyiguá - spoken in the
Serra do Diabo, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
**Apiteré - spoken between the
São Joaquim River and
Amambaí River, Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
**Tembecua - spoken by the neighbors of the Ivitiigúa (Yvytyigua) tribe.
**Chiripá - spoken on the
Acaray River, Paraguay; and at the mouth of the
Iguasú River, Argentina.
**Mbyhá / Jeguaká Tenondé / Bwihá / Caiua / Cahygua - spoken on the
Monday River, Paraguay.
*Canoiero / Aba / Tiäbezä - spoken on both banks of the
Tocantins River
The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
, in the central part of
Bananal Island
Bananal Island ( pt, Ilha do Bananal, ) is a large river island formed from the bisection of the Araguaia River, in southwestern Tocantins, Brazil. The island is formed by a fork in a very flat section of the Araguaia River. Bananal Island is ...
and at the mouth of the
Crixás River and
Peixe River, state of Goiás.
;Guaranized languages
*Shetá / Aré / Yvaparé - once spoken in the interior of the state of Paraná on the
Ivaí River
The Ivaí River (Portuguese, Rio Ivaí) is a river of Paraná state in southern Brazil. It is a tributary of the Paraná River. Its official spelling is Ivaí, with variants including Ivahy and Ival.
The river basin is ecologically very degrade ...
, now extinct.
*Serra dos Dourados (tribe with unknown name) - in the
Serra dos Dourados, state of Paraná.
*Guayaquí / Acé - spoken by a tribe in the Cordillera de
Villa Rica, Paraguay.
*Notobotocudo / Pihtadyouai - language of an extinct tribe that lived at the sources of the
Uruguai River and
Iguasú River, state of Santa Catarina.
;Kamayurá group
*Kamayurá / Camayura - spoken by a small tribe on the
Ferro River in the Xingú basin, state of Mato Grosso.
*Awití / Auetö / Aweti - spoken in the same region on the
Culiseú River, Mato Grosso.
*Arawiné - little known language from the
7 de setembro River, state of Mato Grosso.
;Tapirapé group
*Tapirapé - spoken on the
Tapirapé River and
Naja River, Mato Grosso.
*Ampaneá - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the
Tapirapé River, state of Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
;Northern group
*Tenetehara - language with two dialects:
**Guajajára - originally spoken at the sources of the
Itapecurú River and
Mearim River
The Mearim River is a river in Maranhão state of northern Brazil. The river originates in the southern part of Maranhão, and drains north into the Baía de São Marcos, an estuary that also receives the Pindaré and Grajaú rivers, which are ...
, now on the
Grajaú River and
Pindaré River, state of Maranhão.
**Tembé - originally spoken on the upper course of the
Pindaré River, now on the
Capiro River and
Acará Pequeno River, state of Maranhão.
*Guajá / Guaxara / Wazaizara / Ayaya - spoken between the
Capim River and the lower course of the
Gurupí River, Maranhão.
*Manajé / Ararandeuára - spoken at the sources of the
Bujarú River and on the
Mojú River and
Ararandéua River, state of Maranhão.
*Manoxo / Amanaye - extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the
Mearim River
The Mearim River is a river in Maranhão state of northern Brazil. The river originates in the southern part of Maranhão, and drains north into the Baía de São Marcos, an estuary that also receives the Pindaré and Grajaú rivers, which are ...
near
São Bento, Maranhão. (Unattested.)
*Turiwára / Turiguara - spoken originally on the
Turi River, now on the
Acará Grande River.
*Kaapor / Urubú / Gavião - spoken by the tribe of beautiful feather workers who lived on the
Gurupi River,
Guama River, and
Turiassú River, Maranhão.
*Pocheti - once spoken on the
Araguaia River
The Araguaia River ( pt, Rio Araguaia , Karajá: ♂ ''Berohokỹ'' eɾohoˈkə̃ ♀ ''Bèrakuhukỹ'' ɛɾakuhuˈkə̃ is one of the major rivers of Brazil though it is almost equal in volume at its confluence with the Tocantins. It has a tota ...
and
Mojú River. (Unattested.)
;Pará group
*Camboca - extinct language once spoken between the mouths of the
Tocantins River
The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
and
Jacundá River. (Unattested.)
*Apehou - once spoken at the mouth of the
Xingú River. (Unattested.)
*Aratú - once spoken at the mouth of the
Curuá River. (Unattested.)
*Mapua - once spoken on
Marajó Island on the
Mapuá River
The Mapuá River ( pt, Rio Mapuá) is a river of Pará state in north-central Brazil. It is a left tributary of the Aramá River.
Course
The Mapuá River rises on the island of Marajó in the delta region where the Amazon and Tocantins
Toca ...
. (Unattested.)
*Anajá - once spoken on
Marajó Island on the
Anajás River. (Unattested.)
*Camarapim - once spoken at the mouth of the
Pacajá River. (Unattested.)
*Uanapú - once spoken on the
Anapú River. (Unattested.)
*Coaní - once spoken at the mouth of the
Xingú River. (Unattested.)
*Mamayaná - once spoken to the south of the mouth of the
Anapú River. (Unattested.)
*Pacajá - once spoken between the
Pacajá River and
Anapú River.
*Jacunda - once spoken on the
Jacundá River. (Villa Real 1848, p. 432, only two words.)
*Parakanã - spoken between the
Tocantins River
The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
and
Pacajá River by an almost unknown tribe.
*Anambé - once spoken on the left bank of the
Tocantins River
The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
near
Rebojo de Guariba, now extinct.
*Caranbú - spoken by the unknown neighbors of the Anambé tribe. (Unattested.)
*Tapirauha / Cupelobo / Kupẽ-rob / Jandiaí - spoken by only a few individuals on the
Igarapé do Bacurí and west of the
Cachoeira de Itaboca.
*Anta - once spoken by the neighbors of the Tapirauha tribe. (Unattested.)
*Tacayuna - once spoken on the
Tacaiuna River. (Unattested.)
*Asurini - spoken by the totally unknown tribe that lived between the upper course of the
Xingú River, and the
Freso River and
Pacajá River. (Unattested.)
*Mudzyetíre - a Cayapó name for an unknown Tupi tribe that lived on the
Igarapé Sororosinho. (Unattested.)
*Tacuñapé / Eidum / Péua - extinct language once spoken on the
Iriri River
The Iriri River ( pt, Rio Iriri, ; Mẽbêngôkre: ''Kororoti'', ) is a large tributary of the Xingu River in Brazil, in the state of Pará. It is long making it the 116th longest river in the world (with Krishna River, India) and the 15th long ...
and
Novo River. (only a few words.)
*Tacumandícai / Caras Pretas - language of a very little known tribe that lived on the lower course of the
Xingú River.
*Jauari - extinct language once spoken on the
Vermelho River and
Araguaia River
The Araguaia River ( pt, Rio Araguaia , Karajá: ♂ ''Berohokỹ'' eɾohoˈkə̃ ♀ ''Bèrakuhukỹ'' ɛɾakuhuˈkə̃ is one of the major rivers of Brazil though it is almost equal in volume at its confluence with the Tocantins. It has a tota ...
. (Unattested.)
*Zapucaya - once spoken between the Amazon and
Paraná do Urariá Rivers. (Unattested.)
*Tapajó - once spoken at the mouth of the
Tapajós River
The Tapajós ( pt, Rio Tapajós ) is a river in Brazil. It runs through the Amazon Rainforest and is a major tributary of the Amazon River. When combined with the Juruena River, the Tapajós is approximately long. It is one of the largest clea ...
(cf. Amazonas group). (Unattested.)
*Auacachi - once spoken at the mouth of the
Auacachi River. (Unattested.)
*Papateruana - once spoken in a part of
Tupinambarana Island on the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
. (Unattested.)
;Guiana group
*Oyampi / Wayapí / Guayapi - originally spoken on the lower course of the
Xingú River, later on the
Oiapoque River
The Oyapock or Oiapoque (; ; ) is a long river in South America that forms most of the border between the French overseas department of French Guiana and the Brazilian state of Amapá.
Course
The Oyapock runs through the Guianan moist for ...
in the territory of Amapá, in French Guiana, now on the
Maroni River.
*Tamacom - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the
Jarí River and at the sources of the
Maracá River, Pará. (Unattested.)
*Cusari / Coussani - once spoken on the upper course of the
Araguarí River, territory of Amapá. (Unattested.)
*Paikipiranga / Parixi - spoken at the sources of the
Maracá River, Pará.
*Calayua - once spoken at the sources of the
Inipucú River, Pará. (Unattested.)
*Apama - spoken by a few individuals on the
Maecurú River, Pará. (Unattested.)
*Emerillon / Teko / Emereñon / Marêyo - spoken by only a few families on the
Approuague River
The Approuague river (or Apuruaque in Tupi) is a major river in French Guiana. It is long. It runs north from the Tumuk Humak Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean, almost parallel with the Oyapock, with its mouth by the Pointe Béhague cape.
The A ...
,
Camopi River,
Inini River,
Coureni River, and
Araoua River, French Guiana.
*Caripuna / Calipurn - language spoken on the
Curipi River, Pará, by the mixed population of diverse origin. (Unattested.)
;Southern group
*Apiacá - originally spoken between the
Arinos River
The Arinos River is a river in Brazil. It is located east of, and empties into, the Juruena River. Some of the Suyá Indians, a Gê-speaking people of central Brazil, migrated from the state of Maranhão
Maranhão () is a state in Brazil. ...
and
Juruena River, now on the
São Manoel River and
Ronuro River
The Ronuro River is a river of Mato Grosso state in western Brazil, a tributary of the Xingu River.
The river drains the Rio Ronuro Ecological Station, a strictly protected conservation unit created in 1998. It also flows through the Xingu Indi ...
, and on the upper course of the
Tapajós River
The Tapajós ( pt, Rio Tapajós ) is a river in Brazil. It runs through the Amazon Rainforest and is a major tributary of the Amazon River. When combined with the Juruena River, the Tapajós is approximately long. It is one of the largest clea ...
, Mato Grosso.
*Tapañuna - language of a very little known tribe that lived between the
Tapanhuna River and
Peixe River, state of Mato Grosso. (Unattested.)
*Timaóna - language of an unknown tribe from the
Peixe River. (Unattested.)
*Raipé-Sisi / Aipé-Chichi - once spoken between the
Arinos River
The Arinos River is a river in Brazil. It is located east of, and empties into, the Juruena River. Some of the Suyá Indians, a Gê-speaking people of central Brazil, migrated from the state of Maranhão
Maranhão () is a state in Brazil. ...
and
São Manoel River. (Unattested.)
*Makirí - spoken at the mouth of the
São Manoel River.
*Pariuaia - spoken at the sources of the
Barati River. (Unattested.)
*Kayabí / Parua - spoken on the lower course of the
Verde River and on the
Paranatina River.
*Kawahyb / Cabahyba / Kawahíwa - originally spoken in the tropical forests west of the upper course of the
Tocantins River
The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means "toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak" ...
, later on the
Ji-Paraná River
The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
and
Marmelos River, Pará.
*Dialects:
*Parintintin / Nakazetí / Itoehebe - spoken between the
Madeira River and
Maiçí River, Pará.
*Wiraféd / Tupi do rio Machado - spoken on the
Machado River
Machado is a surname of Portuguese origin meaning the word "axe" or "hatchet" dating back to approximately 2nd century Europe. It is commonly found in Portugal, Spain, Brazil and Latin America, and India (Southern Tamil Nadu and Southern Kerala) d ...
.
*Pauaté - once spoken at the sources of the
Zinho River. (Unattested.)
*Paranawát - spoken at the mouth of the
Muqui River Muqui may refer to
* Muki (Lima), also spelled ''Muqui'', a mountain in the Lima Region, Peru
* Muki (mythology), also spelled ''Mooqui'' or ''Muqui'', a mythological figure in the Andes
* Muqui District, a district in Peru
* Muqui, Espírito S ...
. (Unattested.)
*Mialat - spoken on the middle course of the
Machado River
Machado is a surname of Portuguese origin meaning the word "axe" or "hatchet" dating back to approximately 2nd century Europe. It is commonly found in Portugal, Spain, Brazil and Latin America, and India (Southern Tamil Nadu and Southern Kerala) d ...
. (Unattested.)
*Takwatíp / Tacuatepe - spoken at the confluence of the
Ji-Paraná River
The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
and
Pimenta Bueno River
The Pimenta Bueno River is a river of Rondônia
Rondônia () is one of the 26 states of Brazil, located in the northern subdivision of the country (central-western part). To the west is a short border with the state of Acre, to the north is t ...
.
*Tukumaféd - spoken on the middle course of the
Machado River
Machado is a surname of Portuguese origin meaning the word "axe" or "hatchet" dating back to approximately 2nd century Europe. It is commonly found in Portugal, Spain, Brazil and Latin America, and India (Southern Tamil Nadu and Southern Kerala) d ...
. (Unattested.)
*Ipoteuate - spoken on the
Ji-Paraná River
The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
. (Unattested.)
*Apairandé - spoken between the
Ji-Paraná River
The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
and
Maiçí River. (Unattested.)
*Jabotiféd - spoken on a tributary of the
Machado River
Machado is a surname of Portuguese origin meaning the word "axe" or "hatchet" dating back to approximately 2nd century Europe. It is commonly found in Portugal, Spain, Brazil and Latin America, and India (Southern Tamil Nadu and Southern Kerala) d ...
, east of the Ipoteuate tribe. (Unattested.)
*Dawahib / Bocas Pretas - spoken on the
Anarí River, Rondônia.
*Jaguarúb - spoken south of the Paranawát tribe. (Unattested.)
*Hamno - spoken in the same region as Jaguarúb. (Unattested.)
*Sanenäre - spoken in the same region as Jaguarúb, but exact location uncertain. (Unattested.)
*Majubim - spoken at the confluence of the
Pimenta Bueno River
The Pimenta Bueno River is a river of Rondônia
Rondônia () is one of the 26 states of Brazil, located in the northern subdivision of the country (central-western part). To the west is a short border with the state of Acre, to the north is t ...
and
Ji-Paraná River
The Ji-Paraná River (Machado River), sometimes spelled Jiparaná, is a river in Rondônia state in western Brazil. It is a tributary of the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. For much of its length it runs roughly parallel with the northeastern ...
. (Unattested.)
*Catuquinarú - language of a Tupinized Katukina tribe, spoken on the
Embira River, Amazonas.
;Amazonas group
*Omagua / Campeua / Carari - originally spoken along the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
between the mouth of the
Juruá River
The Juruá River (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristic ...
and the mouth of the
Napo River
The Napo River ( es, Río Napo) is a tributary to the Amazon River that rises in Ecuador on the flanks of the east Andean volcanoes of Antisana, Sincholagua and Cotopaxi.
The total length is . The river drains an area of . The mean annual disch ...
, now in only a few villages.
*Yurimagua / Yoriman - once spoken along the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
from the mouth of the
Jutaí River
The Jutaí River ( pt, Rio Jutaí) is a river in Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
Course
The river flows through the Juruá-Purus moist forests ecoregion.
The Jutaí river runs northeast before reaching its mouth on the southern bank o ...
to the mouth, of the
Purus River, now spoken by only a few of the mixed population in the city of
Yurimaguas
Yurimaguas is a port town in the Loreto Region of the northeastern Peruvian Amazon. Historically associated with the Mainas missions, the culturally diverse town is affectionately known as the "Pearl of the Huallaga" (''Perla del Huallaga''). Yu ...
, Peru. (Unattested.)
*Aizuare - once spoken from the mouth of the
Juruá River
The Juruá River (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristic ...
to the mouth of the
Japura River. (Unattested.)
*Ibanoma / Bonama - spoken on the right bank of the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
from the mouth of the
Purus River to the mouth of the
Juruá River
The Juruá River (Portuguese ''Rio Juruá''; Spanish ''Río Yuruá'') is a southern affluent river of the Amazon River west of the Purus River, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristic ...
; now totally extinct. (Unattested.)
*Tapajó - once spoken at the mouth of the
Tapajós River
The Tapajós ( pt, Rio Tapajós ) is a river in Brazil. It runs through the Amazon Rainforest and is a major tributary of the Amazon River. When combined with the Juruena River, the Tapajós is approximately long. It is one of the largest clea ...
(cf. Pará group). (Unattested.)
*Awakachi - once spoken at the mouth of the
Auacachi River. (Unattested.)
*Papateruana - once spoken in a part of the
Tupinambarana Island on the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
. (Unattested.)
*Paguana - once spoken along the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
from the mouth of the
Cafua River to the mouth of the
Tefé River
The Tefé River (Teffé River in early accounts; pt, Rio Tefé) is a tributary of the Amazon River ( Solimões section) in Amazonas state in north-western Brazil.
The Tefé River flows through the Juruá-Purus moist forests ecoregion.
It form ...
. (Unattested.)
*Cocama - language spoken on a great lagoon on the left bank of the
Ucayali River and near the city of
Nauta
Nauta is a town in the northeastern part of Loreto Province in the Peruvian Amazon, roughly south of Iquitos, the provincial capital. Nauta is located on the north bank of the Marañón River, a major tributary of the Upper Amazon, a few miles ...
, Peru.
*Cocamilla - spoken on the lower course of the
Huallaga River
The Huallaga River is a tributary of the Marañón River, part of the Amazon Basin. Old names for this river include ''Guallaga'' and ''Rio de los Motilones''. The Huallaga is born on the slopes of the Andes in central Peru and joins the Marañó ...
, Peru. (Tessmann 1930, p. 82.)
*Yeté - once spoken on the
Tiputini River, Loreto province, Peru. (Unattested.)
*Jibitaona - once spoken near the city of
Santiago de las Montañas, Peru. (Unattested.)
;Chiriguano group
*Chiriguano / Camba - spoken in the Bolivian Andes in the Serranía de
Aguarugue and in the western part of the Bolivian Chaco, in
Sara Province and on the upper course of the
Bermejo River
The Bermejo River (Spanish, Río Bermejo) is a river in South America that flows from Bolivia to the Paraguay River in Argentina. The river is generally called Bermejo in spite of its different names along its way, but it also has its own Nati ...
. Now only in the
Carandaiti Valley and around
Tarabuco
Tarabuco is a Bolivian town in the department of Chuquisaca, capital of the Yamparáez Province and its first section, Tarabuco Municipality. It is best known as the home of the Yampara culture. Its people host the Pujllay festival in March ea ...
.
*Guarayo - spoken at the sources of the
Blanco River and on the San Miguel River, now in the missions of
Yotaú, San Pablo, and
Yaguarú, province of Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
*Pauserna / Moperecoa / Warádu-nëe - originally spoken on the
Paragúa River and
Tarbo River, Bolivia, now by only a few individuals on the
Verde River, a tributary of the
Guaporé River
Guaporé River ( pt, Rio Guaporé, es, Río Iténez) is a river in western Brazil and northeastern Bolivia. It is long; of the river forms the border between Brazil and Bolivia.
The Guaporé River is part of the Madeira River basin, which ev ...
, Mato Grosso.
*Tapieté / Kurukwá / Yanaygua / Parapiti - spoken on the upper course of the
Pilcomayo River
Pilcomayo (in Hispanicized spelling) (Quechua Pillkumayu or Pillku Mayu, ''pillku'' red, ''mayu'' river, "red river", Guarani Ysyry Araguay ) is a river in central South America. At long, it is the longest western tributary of the Paraguay Rive ...
and on the
Parapití River, Paraguayan Chaco
*Izozo / Chané - spoken on the
Itiyuro River in the Campo y Durán and on the
Parepetí River, Chaco.
*Siriono / Chori - language of a very primitive tribe in central Bolivia, especially in the tropical forests on the
Ichillo River and
Grande River, between the
Blanco River and
Yapacaní River, between the
Ivari River and
Quimore River, between the upper course of the
Ivari River and
Grande River, between the
Piray River and
Itonama River, and between the
Beni River
The Beni River ( es, Río Beni) is a river in the north of Bolivia.
It rises north of La Paz and flows northeast. The Madre de Dios River is where its mouth is at. In the upper portion of its course it flows through highland forest and rainforest, ...
and
Mamoré River
The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
.
*Dialects:
*Tirinié - spoken on the
Mamoré River
The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
.
*Ñeozé - spoken on the
Grande River and
Mamoré River
The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
.
*Yandé - spoken on the
Mamoré River
The Mamoré is a large river in Brazil and Bolivia which unites with the Beni to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. It rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Cochabamba, east of the city of Cochabamba, and is kno ...
. (Unattested.)
*Jora - once spoken around the
Laguna Jorá near the city of
Baures
Baures is a village in Iténez Province, Beni Department, in northern Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the ...
.
;Mawé group
*Mawé / Mauhé / Mague - originally spoken on the
Tapajós Mataura River,
Maué-assú River,
Arapiuns River,
Arichi River, and
Tracuá River, in the state of Pará, now on the
Uaicurapá River.
*Arapiyú / Aripuana - once spoken at the mouth of the
Arapiuns River. (Unattested.)
*Andirá - once spoken south of
Tupinambarana Island on the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
. (Unattested.)
*Igapuitariara - once spoken at the sources of the
Curauaí River. (Unattested.)
*Curiato - once spoken at the mouth of the
Maricauá River. (Unattested.)
*Sapupé / Sacopé - once spoken on the
Bararatí River. (Unattested.)
*Maraguá - extinct language once spoken on the right bank of the
Amazon River
The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile.
The headwaters of ...
, south of the Condurí tribe. (Unattested.)
Proto-language
Schleicher (1998)
The following reconstructions of Proto-Tupi-Guarani are from Schleicher (1998):
Lemle (1971)
The following reconstructions of Proto-Tupi-Guarani are from Lemle (1971):
[Lemle, Miriam. 1971. Internal classification of the Tupi-Guarani linguistic family. In David Bendor-Samuel (ed.), ''Tupi studies I'', 107-129. Norman: Summer Institute of Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma.]
See also
*
Tupí people
A subdivision of the Tupi-Guarani linguistic families, the Tupi people were one of the largest groups of indigenous Brazilians before its colonization. Scholars believe that while they first settled in the Amazon rainforest, from about 2,90 ...
(Tupinambá)
*
Guaraní people
*
Urubú–Kaapor Sign Language
References
Bibliography
*Michael, Lev, Natalia Chousou-Polydouri, Keith Bartolomei, Erin Donnelly, Vivian Wauters, Sérgio Meira, Zachary O'Hagan. 2015
A Bayesian Phylogenetic Classification of Tupí-Guaraní ''LIAMES'' 15(2):193-221.
*O'Hagan, Zachary, Natalia Chousou-Polydouri, Lev Michael. 2019
Phylogenetic classification supports a Northeastern Amazonian Proto-Tupí-Guaraní homeland ''LIAMES'', Campinas, SP, v. 19, 1-29, e019018, 2019. .
*
Further reading
* Gerardi, Fabrício Ferraz; Reichert, Stanislav. "The Tupí-Guaraní language family: A phylogenetic classification". In: ''Diachronica''. Available online: 01 February 2021.
OI: https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.18032.fer
External links
Swadesh lists of Tupi–Guarani basic vocabulary words(from Wiktionary'
Swadesh-list appendix
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tupi-Guarani Languages
Verb–subject–object languages
Indigenous languages of South America (Central)