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Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
developed a distinct culture due to its geographic and climatic conditions. While influenced by neighboring cultures from
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
,
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...
, and
Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is ma ...
, the Himalayan region's remoteness and inaccessibility have preserved distinct local influences, and stimulated the development of its distinct culture. Tibetan Buddhism has exerted a particularly strong influence on Tibetan culture since its introduction in the seventh century. Buddhist missionaries who came mainly from India, Nepal and China introduced arts and customs from India and China. Art, literature, and music all contain elements of the prevailing Buddhist beliefs, and
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
itself has adopted a unique form in Tibet, influenced by the
Bön ''Bon'', also spelled Bön () and also known as Yungdrung Bon (, "eternal Bon"), is a Tibetan religious tradition with many similarities to Tibetan Buddhism and also many unique features.Samuel 2012, pp. 220-221. Bon initially developed in t ...
tradition and other local beliefs. Several works on
astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...
,
astrology Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Di ...
and medicine were translated from
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
and
Classical Chinese Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (古文 ''gǔwén'' "ancient text", or 文言 ''wényán'' "text speak", meaning "literary language/speech"; modern vernacular: 文言文 ''wényánwén'' "text speak text", meaning "literar ...
. The general appliances of civilization have come from China, among many things and skill imported were the making of butter, cheese, barley-beer, pottery, watermills and the national beverage, butter tea. Tibet's specific geographic and climatic conditions have encouraged reliance on
pastoralism Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as "livestock") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands ( pastures) for grazing, historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds. The anim ...
, as well as the development of a different cuisine from surrounding regions, which fits the needs of the human body in these high altitudes.


Tibetan language

The Tibetan language is spoken in a variety of dialects in all parts of the Tibetan-inhabited area which covers 1/2 Million square miles. Some of these dialects are tonal like the
Chinese language Chinese (, especially when referring to written Chinese) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in Greater China. About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the ...
, while others remain non-tonal. Historically Tibet was divided into three cultural provinces called U-Tsang, Kham and
Amdo Amdo ( �am˥˥.to˥˥ ) is one of the three traditional Tibetan regions, the others being U-Tsang in the west and Kham in the east. Ngari (including former Guge kingdom) in the north-west was incorporated into Ü-Tsang. Amdo is also the bi ...
. Each one of these three provinces has developed its own distinct dialect of Tibetan. Most widely spoken is the Lhasa dialect, also called
Standard Tibetan Lhasa Tibetan (), or Standard Tibetan, is the Tibetan dialect spoken by educated people of Lhasa, the capital of the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. It is an official language of the Tibet Autonomous Region. In the traditional "three-branc ...
, which is spoken in Central Tibet and also in Exile by most Tibetans. In Kham the
Khams Tibetan Khams Tibetan () is the Tibetic language used by the majority of the people in Kham. Khams is one of the three branches of the traditional classification of Tibetic languages (the other two being Amdo Tibetan and Ü-Tsang). In terms of mutual i ...
dialect is spoken and in Amdo the
Amdo Tibetan Amdo Tibetan (; also called ''Am kä'') is the Tibetic language spoken in Amdo (now mostly in Qinghai, some in Ngawa and Gannan). It has two dialects, the farmer dialect and the nomad dialect. Amdo is one of the three branches of traditional c ...
dialect. The Tibetan dialects are subject to the Tibetic languages which are part of the
Tibeto-Burman languages The Tibeto-Burman languages are the non- Sinitic members of the Sino-Tibetan language family, over 400 of which are spoken throughout the Southeast Asian Massif ("Zomia") as well as parts of East Asia and South Asia. Around 60 million people sp ...
. Modern Tibetan derives from
Classical Tibetan Classical Tibetan refers to the language of any text written in Tibetic after the Old Tibetan period. Though it extends from the 12th century until the modern day, it particularly refers to the language of early canonical texts translated from o ...
, which is the written norm, and from Old Tibetan. The official language of Bhutan, Dzongkha, is also closely related to Tibetan.


Visual arts

Tibetan art is deeply religious in nature, a form of religious art. It spreads over a wide range of paintings, frescos, statues, ritual objects, coins, ornaments and furniture.


Rugs

Tibetan rug Tibetan rug making is an ancient, traditional craft. Tibetan rugs are traditionally made from Tibetan highland sheep's wool, called ''changpel''. Tibetans use rugs for many purposes ranging from flooring to wall hanging to horse saddles, though ...
making is an ancient art and craft in the tradition of Tibetan people. These rugs are primarily made from Tibetan highland
sheep Sheep or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticate ...
's virgin wool. The Tibetan uses rugs for almost any domestic use from flooring to wall hanging to horse saddles. Traditionally the best rugs are from
Gyantse Gyantse, officially Gyangzê Town (also spelled Gyangtse; ; ), is a town located in Gyantse County, Shigatse Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region, China. It was historically considered the third largest and most prominent town in the Tibet regio ...
, a city which is known for its rugs. The process of making Tibetan rugs is unique in the sense that almost everything is done by hand. But with the introduction of modern technology, a few aspects of the rug making processes have been taken over by machine primarily because of cost, the disappearance of knowledge etc. Moreover, some new finishing touches are also made possible by machine. Tibetan rugs are big business in not only Tibet, but also Nepal, where Tibetan immigrants brought with them their knowledge of rug making. Currently in Nepal the rug business is one of the largest industries in the country and there are many rug exporters.


Painting

Thangkas, a syncrestistic art of Chinese hanging scrolls with
Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is ma ...
ese and Kashmiri painting, first survive from the eleventh century. Rectangular and intricately painted on cotton or linen, they are usually traditional compositions depicting deities, famous monks, and other religious, astrological, and theological subjects, and sometimes
mandala A mandala ( sa, मण्डल, maṇḍala, circle, ) is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for e ...
s. To ensure that the image will not fade, the painting is framed in colorful silk brocades, and stored rolled up. The word ''thangka'' means "something to roll" and refers to the fact that thangkas can easily be rolled up for transportation. Besides thangkas, Tibetan Buddhist wall paintings can be found on temple walls as frescos and furniture and many other items have ornamental painting. Image:Vajrasattva Tibet.jpg, Vajrasattva statue File:Diverse Forms of Mahakala and other Protectors - Google Art Project.jpg, Thangka File:Tsong Khapa as Dombi Heruka Distemper on cloth Tibet 19 век - Sotheby's files.jpg, Je Tsongkhapa as mahasiddha Ḍombi Heruka File:Red Yamari flanked by Virupa and Dombi Heruka - Google Art Project.jpg, Rakta Yamari File:Ganzi-monasterio-d35.jpg, Dharmachakra File:Thangka Depicting Vajrabhairava, ca. 1740, Sotheby's.jpg,
Yamantaka Yamāntaka ( sa, यमान्तक Yamāntaka) or Vajrabhairava (; ; ko, 대위덕명왕 ''Daewideok-myeongwang''; ja, 大威徳明王 ''Daiitoku-myōō''; mn, Эрлэгийн Жаргагчи ''Erlig-jin Jarghagchi'') is the "destroyer of ...
File:Jowo in Ramoche temple1.jpg, Buddha statue File:Wandgemälde Weißer Tempel Tholing (Tibet) Dieter Schuh.JPG, Fresco File:thanka.jpg, Fresco File:Woodblock printing, Sera, Tibet.JPG, Young monks
woodblock printing Woodblock printing or block printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China in antiquity as a method of printing on textiles and later paper. Each page or image is crea ...
, Sera Monastery, Tibet File:Coral Prayer Beads.JPG, Coral
prayer beads Prayer beads are a form of beadwork used to count the repetitions of prayers, chants, or mantras by members of various religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Shinto, Umbanda, Islam, Sikhism, the Baháʼí Faith, and some Christian denom ...
File:Dragon, Tibet, Field Museum.jpg, Dragon


Literature

There is a rich ancient tradition of lay Tibetan literature which includes epics, poetry, short stories, dance scripts and mime, plays and so on which has expanded into a huge body of work - some of which has been translated into Western languages. Tibetan literature has a historical span of over 1300 years. Perhaps the best known category of Tibetan literature outside of Tibet are the epic stories - particularly the famous '' Epic of King Gesar''.


Architecture

Tibetan architecture contains Chinese and Indian influences, and reflects a deeply Buddhist approach. The prayer wheel, along with two deer or dragons, can be seen on nearly every gompa in
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
. The design of
stupa A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circum ...
s (''chörten''s) can vary, from roundish walls in Kham to squarish, four-sided walls in
Ladakh Ladakh () is a region administered by India as a union territory which constitutes a part of the larger Kashmir region and has been the subject of dispute between India, Pakistan, and China since 1947. (subscription required) Quote: "Jammu a ...
. The most unusual feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made of a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is available for heat or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against frequent earthquakes in the mountainous area.


World Heritage Site

Standing at 117 meters in height and 360 meters in width, the
Potala Palace The Potala Palace is a ''dzong'' fortress in Lhasa, Tibet. It was the winter palace of the Dalai Lamas from 1649 to 1959, has been a museum since then, and a World Heritage Site since 1994. The palace is named after Mount Potalaka, the mythi ...
, designated as a
World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for ...
in 1994 and extended to include the Norbulingka area in 2001, is considered a most important example of Tibetan architecture. Formerly the residence of the Dalai Lamas, it contains over a thousand rooms within thirteen stories, and houses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided into the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 10,000 shrines and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures.


Traditional architecture

Traditional Kham architecture is seen in most dwellings in Kangding. Kham houses tend to be spacious and fit in well with their environment. Their floors and ceilings are wooden, as houses are throughout in Kangding. his article is dated. Modern Kangding city is now rebuilt, eliminating the earlier fire-prone wooden architecture Horizontal timber beams support the roof and these in turn are supported by wooden columns. Although the area has been heavily logged, wood is imported and used abundantly for housing. The Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Kham, surrounded by forests, is known for its beautiful wooden houses built in a range of styles and lavishly decorated with wooden ornamentation. The interiors of houses are usually paneled with wood and the cabinetry is ornately decorated. Although various materials are used in the well-built houses, it is the skilful carpentry that is striking. This skill is passed down from father to son and there appear to be plenty of carpenters. However a threat to traditional Tibetan carpentry is the growing use of concrete structures. Some consider the increased use of concrete as a deliberate infiltration of the Chinese influence into Tibet. In Gaba Township, where there are few
Han Chinese The Han Chinese () or Han people (), are an East Asian ethnic group native to China. They constitute the world's largest ethnic group, making up about 18% of the global population and consisting of various subgroups speaking distinctive v ...
, almost all the structures are traditional.


Architecture and monastic architecture

The events that took place in Tibet in the twentieth century exacted a heavy toll on Tibetan monastic architecture. Under the 13th Dalai Lama, the Tengyeling monastery was demolished in 1914 for seeking to come to terms with the Chinese. Under Regent Taktra, the Sera monastery was bombarded with howitzers and ransacked by the Tibetan army in 1947 for siding with former regent Reting. It is important to see that Sera monastery was by no means destroyed but only looted partially. The major destruction happened during the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
. China's Cultural Revolution resulted in the deterioration or loss of Buddhist monasteries, both by intentional destruction and through lack of protection and maintenance. Starting in the 1980s, Tibetans have begun to restore those monasteries that survived. This has become an international effort. Experts are teaching the Tibetans how to restore the building and save the remaining monasteries on the eastern plateau. Monasteries such as the Kumbum Monastery continue to be affected by Chinese politics. Simbiling Monastery was completely flattened in 1967, although it has to some degree been restored. Tashi Lhunpo Monastery shows the influence of Mongol architecture.
Tradruk Temple Tradruk Temple (, referred to as Changzhu Monastery in Chinese) in the Yarlung Valley is the earliest great geomantic temple after the Jokhang and some sources say it predates that temple.Dorje (1999), p. 191. Tradruk Temple is located in Nê ...
is one of the oldest in Tibet, said to have been first built in the 7th century during the reign of Songtsen Gampo of the Tibetan Empire (605?-650). Jokhang was also originally built under Songsten Gampo. Jokhang Temple is the most splendid surviving building of the Tubo period in Tibet and also the earliest civil structural building in Tibet. It integrated the architectural styles of Tibet,
Tang Dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
of China, Nepal, and India, and has become a model of Tibetan religious architecture for thousands of years.
Tsurphu Monastery Tsurphu Monastery ( or Tölung Tsurphu (, "Tsurphu of Tölong") is a gompa which serves as the traditional seat of the Karmapa, the head of the Karma Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism. It is located in Gurum in Doilungdêqên District, Tibet ...
was founded by Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama (1110–1193) in 1159, after he visited the site and laid the foundation for an establishment of a seat there by making offerings to the local protectors, dharmapalas and genius loci. In 1189 he revisited the site and founded his main seat there. The monastery grew to hold 1000 monks. Tsozong Gongba Monastery is a small
shrine A shrine ( la, scrinium "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: ''escrin'' "box or case") is a sacred or holy space dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon, or similar figure of respect, wherein they ...
built around the fourteenth century Palcho Monastery was founded in 1418 and known for its kumbum which has 108 chapels on its four floors. Chokorgyel Monastery, founded in 1509 the
2nd Dalai Lama Gedun Gyatso, also Gendun Gyatso Palzangpo (, "Sublimely Glorious Ocean of Spiritual Aspirants", layname: Yonten Phuntsok; 1475–1542), was considered posthumously to have been the second Dalai Lama. Early life Gedun Gyatso was born near Shig ...
once housed 500 monks but was completely destroyed during the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
.
Ramoche Temple Ramoche Temple (; ) is a Buddhist monastery in Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region. It dates back to the seventh century and is considered to be the most important temple in the city after the Jokhang Temple. Situated in the northwestern part of the ...
is an important temple in Lhasa. The original building complex was strongly influenced by
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
architectural style as it was first built by Han Chinese architects in the middle of the 7th century. Princess Wencheng took charge of this project and ordered the temple be erected facing east to show her homesickness. See
List of Tibetan monasteries This is the list of Tibetan monasteries of Tibetan Buddhism. Gallery File:A grand view of Samye.jpg, Samye Monastery in Dranang File:Ganden monastery.jpg, Ganden Monastery in Lhasa with some ruins visible from destruction by the Communist Ch ...
. File:Rongbuk Monastery3.jpg,
Rongbuk Monastery ''Rongbuk Monastery'' (; other spellings include ''Rongpu'', ''Rongphu'', ''Rongphuk'' and ''Rong sbug'' ()), also known as Dzarongpu or Dzarong, is a Tibetan Buddhist monastery of the Nyingma sect in Basum Township, Dingri County, in Shigatse P ...
File:Tashilhunpo Monastery, Shigatse.JPG, Tashi Lhunpo Monastery reflects a style which would influence that of Mongol styles of architecture File:Lhasa Potala.jpg,
Potala Palace The Potala Palace is a ''dzong'' fortress in Lhasa, Tibet. It was the winter palace of the Dalai Lamas from 1649 to 1959, has been a museum since then, and a World Heritage Site since 1994. The palace is named after Mount Potalaka, the mythi ...
File:IMG 1206 Lhasa Potala.jpg, The Dalai Lama's Quarters in the
Potala Palace The Potala Palace is a ''dzong'' fortress in Lhasa, Tibet. It was the winter palace of the Dalai Lamas from 1649 to 1959, has been a museum since then, and a World Heritage Site since 1994. The palace is named after Mount Potalaka, the mythi ...
File:Palcho Monastery.jpg, Palcho Monastery File:Jokhang-1235.jpg, Roof of the Jokhang File:Jokhang18.JPG, Pillar design
File:Drepung Monastery stairway.jpg, Drepung Monastery stairway File:Tibet-5547 (2212988542).jpg, Entrance File:Jokhang - Jarvis-2.jpg, Shrine courtyard File:Tibet - Flickr - Jarvis-17.jpg, Guardian lion on ground File:Tibet - Flickr - Jarvis-14.jpg, Guardian lion on roof File:Tibet-5288b (2628147245).jpg, Entrance File:Tibet-5524 (2213158958).jpg, Windows File:Guishan Temple.jpg, Guishan Temple File:Tibet - Flickr - Jarvis-19.jpg, Prayer wheel


Clothing

Tibetans tend to be conservative in their dress, and though some have taken to wearing Western clothes, traditional styles still abound. Women wear dark-colored wrap dresses over a blouse, and a colorfully striped, woven wool apron, called ''pangden'' signals that she is married. Men and women both wear long sleeves even in summer months. In his 1955 book, ''Tibetan Marches'', André Migot describes Tibetan clothing as follows: A
chab chab A chab chab is a piece of jewellery which wealthy Tibetan ladies attached to their clothes beneath the right shoulder. It consists of a brooch like main part to which various small utensils are attached with small chains. Among the utensils are ...
is a piece of
jewellery Jewellery ( UK) or jewelry ( U.S.) consists of decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the clothes. From a w ...
which wealthy
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
an ladies attached to their clothes beneath the right shoulder. File:People of Tibet44.jpg, Young woman wearing a chuba File:Monk churning butter tea.JPG, Monk churning butter tea File:IMG 1972 Sakya.jpg, Monks at Sakya Monastery File:Elderly Pilgrim, Tsurphu 1993.JPG, Elderly pilgrim File:Politcal Prisoner Advocates.jpg, Tibetan women in the
White House The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. It is located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., and has been the residence of every U.S. president since John Adams in ...
File:People of Tibet5.jpg, Tibetan people at the Tibet
Nagqu Nagqu (also Naqu, Nakchu, or Nagchu; ; ) is a prefecture-level city in the north of the Chinese autonomous region of Tibet. On May 7, 2018, the former Nagqu Prefecture was officially declared the sixth prefecture-level city in Tibet after Lhasa, ...
Horse Racing Festival File:People of Tibet29.jpg, Young girl File:People of Tibet13.jpg, Woman from Kham Image:Pilgrims, Tsurphu 1993.JPG, Pilgrim with prayer wheel,
Tsurphu Monastery Tsurphu Monastery ( or Tölung Tsurphu (, "Tsurphu of Tölong") is a gompa which serves as the traditional seat of the Karmapa, the head of the Karma Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism. It is located in Gurum in Doilungdêqên District, Tibet ...
, 1993 File:Shigatse Monks, Tibet.jpg, Monks at
Shigatse Shigatse, officially known as Xigazê (; Nepali: ''सिगात्से''), is a prefecture-level city of the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Its area of jurisdiction, with an area of , corresponds to the histo ...
File:Litang34.jpg, Young Monks in Litang County File:People of Tibet7.jpg, A Tibetan young girl wearing a fur hat File:Beggars at Drepung Monastery.png, Pilgrims or locals at Drepung Monastery, wearing
Ü-Tsang Ü-Tsang is one of the three traditional provinces of Tibet, the others being Amdo in the north-east, and Kham in the east. Ngari (including former Guge kingdom) in the north-west was incorporated into Ü-Tsang. Geographically Ü-Tsang covered ...
chubas. File:Prayer of compassion.JPG, Tibetan woman praying File:Drepung Monastery8.jpg, Monk's robes in a gompa File:IMG 0996 Lhasa Barkhor.jpg, Tibetan woman with a prayer wheel praying


Cuisine

The Cuisine of Tibet is quite distinct from that of its neighbours. Tibetan crops must be able to grow at high altitudes, although a few areas in Tibet are low enough to grow such crops as rice, oranges, lemon and bananas. The most important crop in Tibet is
barley Barley (''Hordeum vulgare''), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago. Globally 70% of barley p ...
. Flour milled from roasted barley, called ''
tsampa Tsampa or Tsamba (; ) is a Tibetan and Himalayan staple foodstuff, particularly prominent in the central part of the region. It is glutinous meal made from roasted flour, usually barley flour and sometimes also wheat flour. It is usually mi ...
'', is the staple food of Tibet. It is eaten mostly mixed with the national beverage, the butter tea. Butter tea perfectly fits the needs of the human body in these high altitudes as it contains butter (protein and fat), milk (protein, fat and calcium), salt and tea. Tibetan cuisine contains a wide variety of dishes. The most famous are Momos (Tibetan dumplings). ''
Balep Balep ( bo, བག་ལེབ།) is a Tibetan bannock quickbread. There are also other types of Tibetan cuisine "balep" breads and fried pies including: * Amdo Balep a rounded bread from the Amdo region. * Sha balep () are fried beef pies * ...
'' is Tibetan bread eaten for breakfast and lunch. There many other types of balep bread and fried pies. '' Thukpa'' is noodle soup. It consists of noodles of various shapes, vegetables, and meat in broth. Tibetan cuisine is traditionally served with bamboo
chopsticks Chopsticks ( or ; Pinyin: ''kuaizi'' or ''zhu'') are shaped pairs of equal-length sticks of Chinese origin that have been used as kitchen and eating utensils in most of East and Southeast Asia for over three millennia. They are held in the ...
, in contrast to other Himalayan cuisines which are eaten by hand. Small soup bowls are also used by Tibetans, and the rich are known to have used bowls of gold and silver. Since only a few crops grow at such high altitudes, many features of Tibetan cuisine are imported, such as tea, rice and others. Meat dishes are likely to be yak,
goat The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the a ...
, or mutton, often dried, or cooked into a spicy
stew A stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. A stew needs to have raw ingredients added to the gravy. Ingredients in a stew can include any combination of vegetables a ...
with
potato The potato is a starchy food, a tuber of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'' and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Wild potato species can be found from the southern Uni ...
es. Tibetans would never eat dogs and fish only in special cases as dogs are regarded as domestic animals and also guard dogs, and fishes are one of the Eight Auspicious Symbols of Buddhism. Mustard seed is cultivated in Tibet, and therefore features strongly in its cuisine. Yak
yogurt Yogurt (; , from tr, yoğurt, also spelled yoghurt, yogourt or yoghourt) is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as ''yogurt cultures''. Fermentation of sugars in the milk by these bac ...
,
butter Butter is a dairy product made from the fat and protein components of churned cream. It is a semi-solid emulsion at room temperature, consisting of approximately 80% butterfat. It is used at room temperature as a spread, melted as a condim ...
and cheese are frequently eaten, and well-prepared yogurt is considered something of a prestige item. In larger Tibetan towns and cities many restaurants nowadays serve Sichuan-style Chinese food. Western imports and fusion dishes, such as fried yak and chips, are also popular. Nevertheless, many small restaurants serving traditional Tibetan dishes persist in both cities and the countryside. Jasmine tea and yak butter tea are drunk. Alcoholic beverages include: * Chang, a beer usually made from barley *
Raksi Raksi (Devanagari:रक्सी) or Rakshi (Bantawa language: Hengmawa/Hengma, Limbu language: Sijongwaa aara, Nepal Bhasa: aila) is the Nepali term for a traditional distilled alcoholic beverage in Nepal, India (Darjeeling, Sikkim) and Tibet. ...
, a rice wine


Tibetan family life

Tibetans traditionally venerate their elders within their families.


Polyandry and polygyny

Tibetans used to practice
polyandry Polyandry (; ) is a form of polygamy in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a plural number of "husbands and wives" ...
widely. In his memoirs about his life in Tibet in the 1940s, Austrian writer Heinrich Harrer reports encountering nomads practising polyandry: "We were astonished to find polyandry practised among the nomads." "When several brothers share the same wife, the eldest is always the master in the household and the others have rights only when he is away or amusing himself elsewhere." Harrer also mentions the practice of
polygyny Polygyny (; from Neoclassical Greek πολυγυνία (); ) is the most common and accepted form of polygamy around the world, entailing the marriage of a man with several women. Incidence Polygyny is more widespread in Africa than in any ...
in one particular case: a man marrying "several daughters of a house in which there is no son and heir." "The arrangement prevents the family fortune from being dispersed."


Calendar

The Tibetan calendar is the
lunisolar calendar A lunisolar calendar is a calendar in many cultures, combining lunar calendars and solar calendars. The date of Lunisolar calendars therefore indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar year, that is the position of the Sun in ...
, that is, the Tibetan year is composed of either 12 or 13 lunar months, each beginning and ending with a new moon. A thirteenth month is added approximately every three years, so that an average Tibetan year is equal to the solar year. The name of the months are ༼ མཆུ་ཟླ་བ།༽ January, ༼ དབོ་ཟླ་བ།༽ February, ༼ ནག་པ་ཟླ་བ།༽་ March, ༼ ས་ག་ཟླ་བ།་༽ April, ༼ སྣྲོན་ཟླ་བ།༽ May, ༼ ཆུ་སྟོད་ཟླ་བ།༽ June, ༼ གྲོ་བཞིན་ཟླ་བ།༽ July, ༼ ཁྲུམས་སྟདོ།༽ August, ༼ དབྱུ་གུ་ཟླ་བ།༽ September, ༼ སྨིན་དྲུག་ཟླ་བ།༽ October, ༼ གོ་ཟླ་བ།༽ November and ༼ རྒྱལ་ཟླ་བ།༽ December. , -, but the fourth month which is called the saka dawa, celebrating the birth and enlightenment of Buddha. The Tibetan
New Year New Year is the time or day currently at which a new calendar year begins and the calendar's year count increments by one. Many cultures celebrate the event in some manner. In the Gregorian calendar, the most widely used calendar system ...
celebration is
Losar Losar (; "new year"William D. Crump, "Losar" in ''Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide'' (McFarland & Co.: 2008), pp. 237-38.) also known as Tibetan New Year, is a festival in Tibetan Buddhism. The holiday is celebrated on various d ...
. Each year is associated with an animal and an element. The animals alternate in the following order: The elements alternate in the following order: Each element is associated with two consecutive years, first in its male aspect, then in its female aspect. For example, a male Earth- Dragon year is followed by a female Earth- Snake year, then by a male Iron- Horse year. The sex may be omitted, as it can be inferred from the animal. The element-animal designations recur in cycles of 60 years, starting with a (female) Fire- Rabbit year. These big cycles are numbered. The first cycle started in 1027. Therefore, 2005 roughly corresponds to the (female) Wood- Rooster year of the 17th cycle, and 2008 corresponds to a (male) Earth- Rat year of the same cycle.


Days of the week

The days of the week are named for celestial bodies. Nyima "Sun", Dawa "Moon" and Lhakpa "Mercury" are common personal names for people born on Sunday, Monday or Wednesday respectively.


Tibetan eras

*''Rab byung'': The first year of the first 60-year cycle is equivalent to AD 1027. *''Rab lo'': The total number of years since 1027 are counted. * Tibetan Era (used on Tibetan banknotes): The first year of this era is equivalent to AD 255. * ''rgyal lo'' or ''bod rgyal lo'': The first year of this era is equivalent to 127 BC.


Traditional gifts

A gift traditionally given at the time of a new birth is that of an
ibex An ibex (plural ibex, ibexes or ibices) is any of several species of wild goat (genus ''Capra''), distinguished by the male's large recurved horns, which are transversely ridged in front. Ibex are found in Eurasia, North Africa and East Africa ...
figurine, as described below by August Hermann Francke.
"Our Christian evangelist at Khalatse had become a father a few weeks before, and the people of the village had made presents of "flour-
ibex An ibex (plural ibex, ibexes or ibices) is any of several species of wild goat (genus ''Capra''), distinguished by the male's large recurved horns, which are transversely ridged in front. Ibex are found in Eurasia, North Africa and East Africa ...
" to him and his wife. He gave me one of those figures, which are made of flour and butter, and told me that it was a custom in Tibet and Ladakh, to make presents of "flour-ibex" on the occasion of the birth of a child. This is quite interesting information. I had often wondered why there were so many rock carvings of ibex at places connected with the pre-Buddhist religion of Ladakh. Now it appears probable that they are thank offerings after the birth of children. As I have tried to show in my previous article, people used to go to the pre-Buddhist places of worship, in particular, to pray to be blessed with children."Francke (1914), pp. 95-96.


Performing arts


Music

The music of Tibet reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region, centered in
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
but also known wherever ethnic
Tibetan Tibetan may mean: * of, from, or related to Tibet * Tibetan people, an ethnic group * Tibetan language: ** Classical Tibetan, the classical language used also as a contemporary written standard ** Standard Tibetan, the most widely used spoken diale ...
groups are found in
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...
, Bhutan,
Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is ma ...
and further abroad. The
religious music Religious music (also sacred music) is a type of music that is performed or composed for religious use or through religious influence. It may overlap with ritual music, which is music, sacred or not, performed or composed for or as ritual. Relig ...
of Tibet reflects the profound influence of Tibetan Buddhism on the culture.


Chanting

Tibetan music often involves chanting in Tibetan or Sanskrit as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts or in celebration of various
festivals A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival ...
. Yang chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables. Other styles include those unique to the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, such as the classical music of the popular
Gelug 240px, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Bodhgaya (India).">Bodh_Gaya.html" ;"title="Kalachakra ceremony, Bodh Gaya">Bodhgaya (India). The Gelug (, also Geluk; "virtuou ...
school and the romantic music of the
Nyingma Nyingma (literally 'old school') is the oldest of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. It is also often referred to as ''Ngangyur'' (, ), "order of the ancient translations". The Nyingma school is founded on the first lineages and trans ...
, Sakya and Kagyu schools. Secular Tibetan music has been promoted by organizations like the 14th Dalai Lama's
Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts ] The Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts (TIPA) was founded by Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama on reaching McLeod Ganj, Himachal Pradesh, India in exile from Tibet in August 1959. It was then called Tibetan Music, Dance and Drama Society ...
. This organization specialized in the lhamo, an operatic style, before branching out into other styles, including
dance music Dance music is music composed specifically to facilitate or accompany dancing. It can be either a whole musical piece or part of a larger musical arrangement. In terms of performance, the major categories are live dance music and recorded da ...
like
toeshey Nangma (Tibetan: ; Chinese: 囊玛) is a genre of Tibetan dance music closely related to Toeshey (སྟོད་གཞས་). The word Nangma derives from the Persian word ''Naghma'' meaning melody. Both a band and a nightclub have been named aft ...
and
nangma Nangma (Tibetan: ; Chinese: 囊玛) is a genre of Tibetan dance music closely related to Toeshey (སྟོད་གཞས་). The word Nangma derives from the Persian word ''Naghma'' meaning melody. Both a band and a nightclub have been named aft ...
. Nangma is especially popular in the
karaoke Karaoke (; ; , clipped compound of Japanese ''kara'' "empty" and ''ōkesutora'' "orchestra") is a type of interactive entertainment usually offered in clubs and bars, where people sing along to recorded music using a microphone. The music is ...
bars of the urban center of Tibet,
Lhasa Lhasa (; Lhasa dialect: ; bo, text=ལྷ་ས, translation=Place of Gods) is the urban center of the prefecture-level Lhasa City and the administrative capital of Tibet Autonomous Region in Southwest China. The inner urban area of Lhasa ...
. Another form of popular music is the classical gar style, which is performed at rituals and ceremonies. Lu are a type of songs that feature glottal vibrations and high pitches which are typically sung by nomads. There are also epic bards who sing of Tibet's national hero, Gesar.


Modern and popular

Tibetans are well represented in Chinese popular culture. Tibetan singers are particularly known for their strong vocal abilities, which many attribute to the high altitudes of the Tibetan Plateau. Tseten Dolma (才旦卓玛) rose to fame in the 1960s for her music-and-dance suite "The Earth is Red". Kelsang Metok (格桑梅朵) is a popular singer who combines traditional Tibetan songs with elements of Chinese and Western pop. Purba Rgyal (Pubajia or 蒲巴甲) was the 2006 winner of Haonaner, the Chinese version of
American Idol ''American Idol'' is an American singing competition television series created by Simon Fuller, produced by Fremantle North America and 19 Entertainment, and distributed by Fremantle North America. It aired on Fox from June 11, 2002, to ...
. In 2006, he starred in
Sherwood Hu Sherwood Xuehua Hu (; born 1967), is a Chinese American theatre director and film director. Early life and education Hu was born in Shanghai in 1967, to Hu Weimin (; 1932-1989), a theatre director, and Gu Menghua (). His sister Hu Xuelian () ...
's ''Prince of the Himalayas'', an adaptation of
Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
's
Hamlet ''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play, with 29,551 words. Set in Denmark, the play depicts ...
, set in ancient Tibet and featuring an all-Tibetan cast. Tibetan music has influenced certain styles of Western music, such as
new-age New Age is a range of spiritual or religious practices and beliefs which rapidly grew in Western society during the early 1970s. Its highly eclectic and unsystematic structure makes a precise definition difficult. Although many scholars conside ...
. Philip Glass,
Henry Eichheim Henry Eichheim (January 3, 1870 – August 22, 1942) was an American composer, conductor, violinist, organologist, and ethnomusicologist. He is best known as one of the first American composers to combine the sound of indigenous Asian instruments w ...
and other composers are known for Tibetan elements in their music. The first Western fusion with Tibetan music was '' Tibetan Bells'' in 1971. The soundtrack to '' Kundun'', by Glass, has also popularized Tibetan music in the West. Foreign styles of popular music have also had a major impact within Tibet. Indian ghazal and filmi are very popular, as is
rock and roll Rock and roll (often written as rock & roll, rock 'n' roll, or rock 'n roll) is a genre of popular music that evolved in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It originated from African-American music such as jazz, rhythm ...
, an American style which has produced Tibetan performers like
Rangzen Shonu Rangzen Shonu (: "Freedom Youth") was a three-member rock band formed by Tenzin Choesang, Norbu Choephel and Tsering Paljor Phurpatsang. Tibetans in Dharamshala, India. They released their debut album ''Rangzen Shonu'' in 1987, with a lyrics bookl ...
. Since the relaxation of some laws in the 1980s,
Tibetan pop The music of Tibet reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region centered in Tibet, but also known wherever ethnic Tibetan groups are found in Nepal, Bhutan, India and further abroad. The religious music of Tibet reflects the pr ...
, popularized by the likes of Yadong,
Jampa Tsering Jampa Tsering (; ) was a Chinese singer and dancer. He is of Tibetan ethnicity. Born in Lhasa in the early 1960s, Jampa Tsering became famous in the late 1980s and early 1990s, releasing an immensely popular album, ''Gnas mchog gi glu dbyangs (So ...
, 3-member group AJIA, 4-member group Gao Yuan Hong, 5-member group Gao Yuan Feng, and
Dechen Shak-Dagsay Dechen Shak-Dagsay is a modern musician of traditional Tibetan Buddhist mantras expressed in recent lyrical contexts. Life Born in Kathmandu, Nepal in 1959, Shak-Dagsay and her family moved to Switzerland in 1963, where she has resided ever s ...
are well-known, as are the sometimes politicized lyrics of
nangma Nangma (Tibetan: ; Chinese: 囊玛) is a genre of Tibetan dance music closely related to Toeshey (སྟོད་གཞས་). The word Nangma derives from the Persian word ''Naghma'' meaning melody. Both a band and a nightclub have been named aft ...
. Gaoyuan Hong in particular has introduced elements of Tibetan language rapping into their singles.


Drama

The Tibetan folk opera known as '' (Ache) Lhamo'' "(sister) goddess", is a combination of dances, chants and songs. The repertoire is drawn from Buddhist stories and Tibetan history. Lhamo was founded in the fourteenth century by the
Thang Tong Gyalpo Thangtong Gyalpo () (1385 CE–1464 CE or 1361 CE–1485 CE), also known as Chakzampa, the "Iron Bridge Maker" (), Tsöndrü Zangpo "Excellent Persistence" (), and the King of the Empty Plain.Sarah Harding. Niguma, Lady of Illusion. Snow L ...
, a lama and important historical civil engineer. Gyalpo and seven recruited girls organized the first performance to raise funds for building bridges that would facilitate transportation in
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
. The tradition continued, and lhamo is held on various festive occasions such as the Linka and Shoton festivals. The performance is usually a drama, held on a barren stage, that combines dances, chants and songs. Colorful masks are sometimes worn to identify a character, with red symbolizing a king and yellow indicating deities and lamas. The performance starts with a stage purification and blessings. A narrator then sings a summary of the story, and the performance begins. Another ritual blessing is conducted at the end of the play.


Cham dance

The cham dance is a lively masked and costumed dance associated with some sects of Tibetan Buddhism and Buddhist festivals.


Festivals

Tibetan festivals such as
Losar Losar (; "new year"William D. Crump, "Losar" in ''Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide'' (McFarland & Co.: 2008), pp. 237-38.) also known as Tibetan New Year, is a festival in Tibetan Buddhism. The holiday is celebrated on various d ...
, Shoton, the Bathing Festival and many more are deeply rooted in indigenous religion, and also contain foreign influences. Tibetan festivals are a high source of entertainment and can include many sports such as yak racing. Tibetans consider festivals as an integral part of their life and almost everyone participates in the festivities. File:Nawang Khechog.jpg, A musician at The Tibetan Culture Festival. File:Yungchen Lhamo.jpeg, A musician File:Street musician Xigatse 1993.JPG, A street musician in
Shigatse Shigatse, officially known as Xigazê (; Nepali: ''सिगात्से''), is a prefecture-level city of the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Its area of jurisdiction, with an area of , corresponds to the histo ...
File:Dancing at Sho Dun Festival, Norbulingka.JPG, Sho dun (Shotun) festival


Domestic animals

File:Tibet-5805 - Tibet at 15,000 feet (2589963541).jpg, Shepherd with his Tibetan Mastiff File:Bonze toilette.JPG, Tibetan pet having a bath File:20110812 Nomad Horse Racing Zhanzong Tibet China 1.jpg, Horse Racing in Tibet File:Bos grunniens at Yundrok Yumtso Lake.jpg , Domestic yak. In Tibet, yaks are decorated and honored by the families they are part of. File:LitangMonastery.jpg, Yaks File:Tibetan shepherd girl.jpg, Sheep File:Dogue du Tibet.jpg, Tibetan Mastiff File:Lhasaapso.jpg, A Lhasa Apso with a long, dense coat, a dog originating in Tibet.


Representation on social media

Since 2010, thousands of ethnic Tibetans worldwide have called on Unicode Consortium and social media platforms like
Facebook Facebook is an online social media and social networking service owned by American company Meta Platforms. Founded in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg with fellow Harvard College students and roommates Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dust ...
,
Twitter Twitter is an online social media and social networking service owned and operated by American company Twitter, Inc., on which users post and interact with 280-character-long messages known as "tweets". Registered users can post, like, and ...
and Instagram to approve and also release the Tibetan flag emoji. The main purpose of this is to help evoke their sense of belonging to regional and cultural
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
via online means and also to further spread the Tibetan culture and representation across borders. However, as of August 2019, despite the efforts of members of the Emoji Subcommittee and Unicode's negotiating body (and Unicode's official admission that the flag proposal is strong), the decision-making process of approval and eventual release of the Tibetan flag emoji by Unicode has been and remained stalled. This is probably due to strong opposition by millions of Mainland Chinese citizens, Mainland Chinese members of Unicode Consortium and the Chinese government's willingness to place economic sanctions against the company if Unicode ‘unilaterally’ releases the Tibetan flag emoji (unless China returns to a state of democracy and is willing to support the rights and freedoms of Tibetans in
Tibet Autonomous Region The Tibet Autonomous Region or Xizang Autonomous Region, often shortened to Tibet or Xizang, is a province-level autonomous region of the People's Republic of China in Southwest China. It was overlayed on the traditional Tibetan regions ...
). Nonetheless, Tibetans across the globe have been pushing on. In light of the ongoing 2019–20 Hong Kong protests that have been taking place since June 2019 and subsequent Mainland Chinese interference in major social media platforms, Tibetans have called or are calling for Unicode to extend the timeline for at least one more year, to ensure the elimination of Mainland Chinese influence in operations conducted by social media platforms and Unicode before prioritising on the eventual acceptance and release of the Tibetan flag emoji to the public. The flag emoji may only be released in Emoji 13.0, 14.0 or later, depending on the socio-political circumstances.


See also

* Mongolian and Tibetan Cultural Center * Culture of Bhutan *
Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts ] The Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts (TIPA) was founded by Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama on reaching McLeod Ganj, Himachal Pradesh, India in exile from Tibet in August 1959. It was then called Tibetan Music, Dance and Drama Society ...
*
Ghosts in Tibetan culture There is widespread belief in ghosts in Tibetan culture. Ghosts are explicitly recognized in the Tibetan Buddhist religion as they were in Indian Buddhism, occupying a distinct but overlapping world to the human one, and feature in many traditional ...
* List of Tibetan poets from India *
List of Tibetan monasteries This is the list of Tibetan monasteries of Tibetan Buddhism. Gallery File:A grand view of Samye.jpg, Samye Monastery in Dranang File:Ganden monastery.jpg, Ganden Monastery in Lhasa with some ruins visible from destruction by the Communist Ch ...
* Ma Jian, modern Chinese author whose works feature depictions of traditional Tibetan culture * Tibet since 1950 * Snow Lion


Footnotes


References

* Stein, R. A. ''Tibetan Civilization''. (1962 in French). I1st English edition with minor changes 1972. Stanford University Press, pp. 248–281. (cloth), (paper). * Francke, A. H. (1914). Antiquities of Indian Tibet. Two Volumes. Calcutta. 1972 reprint: S. Chand, New Delhi. * Chophel, Norbu. ''Folk Tales of Tibet''. (1984) Library of Tibetan Works & Archives, Dharamsala, H.P., India. Reprinted 1989, 1993.


Further reading

* Gelek, Lobsang.
A General Introduction to Tibetan Culture and Religion
" '' Chinese Sociology & Anthropology''. Volume 34, Issue 4, 2002. Published online on 20 December 2014. DOI
10.2753/CSA0009-4625340415See profile at
ResearchGate.


External links


Conserving Tibetan Art and Architecture

Chinese colonialism in Tibet causes cultural identity crisis

Origin of Tibetan Masks
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tibetan Culture Tibetan Buddhist art and culture