''On the Consolation of Philosophy'' ('' la, De consolatione philosophiae'')'','' often titled as ''The Consolation of Philosophy'' or simply the ''Consolation,'' is a philosophical work by the Roman statesman Boethius. Written in 523 while he was imprisoned by King Theodoric, it is often described as the last great Western work of the Classical Period. Boethius's ''Consolation'' heavily influenced the philosophy of

late antiquity Late antiquity is the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, generally spanning the 3rd–7th century in Europe and adjacent areas bordering the Mediterranean Basin. The popularization of this periodization in English h ...

, as well as Medieval and early

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global popula ...

Dante Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: ' ...

placed Boethius the "last of the Romans and first of the Scholastics" among the doctors in his Paradise (see '' The Divine Comedy'') (see also below).

Description

''On the Consolation of Philosophy'' was written in AD 523 during a one-year imprisonment Boethius served while awaiting trial—and eventual execution—for the alleged crime of

treason Treason is the crime of attacking a state authority to which one owes allegiance. This typically includes acts such as participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to overthrow its government, spying on its military, its diplo ...

under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great. Boethius was at the very heights of power in

Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus ( legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...

, holding the prestigious office of '' magister officiorum'', and was brought down by treachery. This experience inspired the text, which reflects on how evil can exist in a world governed by God (the problem of theodicy), and how happiness is still attainable amidst fickle fortune, while also considering the nature of happiness and God. In 1891, the academic Hugh Fraser Stewart described the work as "by far the most interesting example of prison literature the world has ever seen." Boethius writes the book as a conversation between himself and a female personification of philosophy. Philosophy consoles Boethius by discussing the transitory nature of fame and wealth ("no man can ever truly be secure until he has been forsaken by Fortune"), and the ultimate superiority of things of the mind, which she calls the "one true good". She contends that happiness comes from within, and that virtue is all that one truly has, because it is not imperiled by the vicissitudes of fortune. Boethius engages with the nature of predestination and free will, the problem of evil, human nature,

virtue Virtue ( la, virtus) is morality, moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is Value (ethics), valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other words, it is a behavior that sh ...

, and justice. He speaks about the nature of free will and determinism when he asks if God knows and sees all, or does man have free will. On human nature, Boethius says that humans are essentially good and only when they give in to "wickedness" do they "sink to the level of being an animal." On justice, he says criminals are not to be abused, rather treated with sympathy and respect, using the analogy of doctor and patient to illustrate the ideal relationship between prosecutor and criminal.

Outline

''On the Consolation of Philosophy'' is laid out as follows: *Book I: Boethius laments his imprisonment before he is visited by Philosophy, personified as a woman. *Book II: Philosophy illustrates the capricious nature of Fate by discussing the "wheel of Fortune"; she further argues that true happiness lies in the pursuit of wisdom. *Book III: Building on the ideas laid out in the previous book, Philosophy explains how wisdom has a divine source; she also demonstrates how many earthly goods (e.g., wealth, beauty) are fleeting at best. *Book IV: Philosophy and Boethius discuss the nature of good and evil, with Philosophy offering several explanations for why evil exists and why the wicked can never attain true happiness. *Book V: Boethius asks Philosophy about the role Chance plays in the order of everything. Philosophy argues that Chance is guided by

Providence Providence often refers to: * Providentia, the divine personification of foresight in ancient Roman religion * Divine providence, divinely ordained events and outcomes in Christianity * Providence, Rhode Island, the capital of Rhode Island in the ...

. Boethius then asks Philosophy about the compatibility of an omniscient God and free will.

Interpretation

In the ''Consolation'', Boethius answered religious questions without reference to Christianity, relying solely on natural philosophy and the Classical Greek tradition. He believed in the correspondence between faith and reason. The truths found in Christianity would be no different from the truths found in philosophy. In the words of Henry Chadwick, "If the ''Consolation'' contains nothing distinctively Christian, it is also relevant that it contains nothing specifically pagan either... tis a work written by a Platonist who is also a Christian." Boethius repeats the Macrobius model of the

Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's sur ...

in the center of a spherical cosmos. The philosophical message of the book fits well with the religious piety of the Middle Ages. Boethius encouraged readers not to pursue worldly goods such as money and power, but to seek internalized virtues. Evil had a purpose, to provide a lesson to help change for good; while suffering from evil was seen as virtuous. Because God ruled the universe through Love, prayer to God and the application of Love would lead to true happiness.Sanderson Beck (1996). The Middle Ages, with their vivid sense of an overruling fate, found in Boethius an interpretation of life closely akin to the spirit of Christianity. The ''Consolation'' stands, by its note of fatalism and its affinities with the Christian doctrine of humility, midway between the pagan philosophy of

Seneca the Younger Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (; 65 AD), usually known mononymously as Seneca, was a Stoic philosopher of Ancient Rome, a statesman, dramatist, and, in one work, satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature. Seneca was born ...

and the later Christian philosophy of consolation represented by Thomas à Kempis.'' The Cambridge History of English and American Literature''
Volume I Ch.6.5: ''De Consolatione Philosophiae''
1907–1921. The book is heavily influenced by

Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...

and his dialogues (as was Boethius himself). Its popularity can in part be explained by its Neoplatonic and Christian ethical messages, although current scholarly research is still far from clear exactly why and how the work became so vastly popular in the Middle Ages.

Influence

From the Carolingian epoch to the end of the Middle Ages and beyond, ''The Consolation of Philosophy'' was one of the most popular and influential philosophical works, read by statesmen, poets, historians, philosophers and theologians. It is through Boethius that much of the thought of the Classical period was made available to the Western Medieval world. It has often been said Boethius was the "

last of the Romans The term Last of the Romans ( la, Ultimus Romanorum) has historically been used to describe a person thought to embody the values of ancient Roman civilization – values which, by implication, became extinct on his death. It has been used to d ...

and the first of the Scholastics". Translations into the vernacular were done by famous notables, including King Alfred (

Old English Old English (, ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the mid-5th ...

), Jean de Meun (

Old French Old French (, , ; Modern French: ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France from approximately the 8th to the 14th centuries. Rather than a unified language, Old French was a linkage of Romance dialects, mutually intel ...

), Geoffrey Chaucer (

Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old Englis ...

), Queen Elizabeth I ( Early Modern English) and

Notker Labeo Notker Labeo (c. 950 – 28 June 1022), also known as Notker the German ( la, Notcerus Teutonicus) or Notker III, was a Benedictine monk and the first commentator on Aristotle active in the Middle Ages. "Labeo" means "the thick-lipped one". Late ...

(

Old High German Old High German (OHG; german: Althochdeutsch (Ahd.)) is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally covering the period from around 750 to 1050. There is no standardised or supra-regional form of German at this period, and Old Hig ...

). Boethius's ''Consolation of Philosophy'' was translated into Italian by Alberto della Piagentina (1332), Anselmo Tanso (Milan, 1520),

Lodovico Domenichi Lodovico Domenichi (1515–1564) was an Italian translator. Biography Lodovico Domenichi was born in Piacenza (Italy) in 1515. After studying Law at the University of Padua, he pursued a literary career. He lived in Piacenza, Venice and Florence ...

(Florence, 1550),

Benedetto Varchi Benedetto Varchi (; 1502/15031565) was an Italian humanist, historian, and poet. Biography Born in Florence to a family that had originated at Montevarchi, he frequented the neoplatonic academy that Bernardo Rucellai organized in his garden, the ...

(Florence, 1551), Cosimo Bartoli (Florence, 1551) and Tommaso Tamburini (Palermo, 1657). Found within the ''Consolation'' are themes that have echoed throughout the Western canon: the female figure of wisdom that informs Dante, the ascent through the layered universe that is shared with Milton, the reconciliation of opposing forces that find their way into Chaucer in ''The Knight's Tale'', and the Wheel of Fortune so popular throughout the Middle Ages. Citations from it occur frequently in

's '' Divina Commedia''. Of Boethius, Dante remarked: "The blessed soul who exposes the deceptive world to anyone who gives ear to him." Boethian influence can be found nearly everywhere in Geoffrey Chaucer's poetry, e.g. in '' Troilus and Criseyde'', ''

The Knight's Tale "The Knight's Tale" ( enm, The Knightes Tale) is the first tale from Geoffrey Chaucer's '' The Canterbury Tales''. The Knight is described by Chaucer in the " General Prologue" as the person of highest social standing amongst the pilgrims, t ...

'', '' The Clerk's Tale'', ''

The Franklin's Tale "The Franklin's Tale" ( enm, The Frankeleyns Tale) is one of '' The Canterbury Tales'' by Geoffrey Chaucer. It focuses on issues of providence, truth, generosity and ''gentillesse'' in human relationships. Synopsis A medieval franklin was fre ...

'', ''

The Parson's Tale "The Parson's Tale" seems, from the evidence of its prologue, to have been intended as the final tale of Geoffrey Chaucer's poetic cycle '' The Canterbury Tales''. The "tale", which is the longest of all the surviving contributions by Chaucer's ...

'' and ''

The Tale of Melibee "The Tale of Melibee" (also called "The Tale of Melibeus") is one of '' The Canterbury Tales'' by Geoffrey Chaucer. This is the second tale in the collection told by Chaucer himself. After being interrupted by the host Harry Bailly, Chaucer la ...

'', in the character of Lady Nature in '' The Parliament of Fowls'' and some of the shorter poems, such as ''Truth'', ''The Former Age'' and ''Lak of Stedfastnesse''. Chaucer translated the work in his '' Boece''. The Italian composer Luigi Dallapiccola used some of the text in his choral work '' Canti di prigionia'' (1938). The

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. With an area of , Australia is the largest country by ...

n composer Peter Sculthorpe quoted parts of it in his opera or music theatre work '' Rites of Passage'' (1972–73), which was commissioned for the opening of the Sydney Opera House but was not ready in time. Tom Shippey in '' The Road to Middle-earth'' says how "Boethian" much of the treatment of evil is in Tolkien's '' The Lord of the Rings''. Shippey says that Tolkien knew well the translation of Boethius that was made by King Alfred and he quotes some "Boethian" remarks from Frodo, Treebeard and Elrond. Boethius and ''Consolatio Philosophiae'' are cited frequently by the main character Ignatius J. Reilly in the Pulitzer Prize-winning '' A Confederacy of Dunces'' (1980). It is a prosimetrical text, meaning that it is written in alternating sections of prose and metered verse. In the course of the text, Boethius displays a virtuosic command of the forms of Latin poetry. It is classified as a Menippean satire, a fusion of allegorical tale,

platonic dialogue Socratic dialogue ( grc, Σωκρατικὸς λόγος) is a genre of literary prose developed in Greece at the turn of the fourth century BC. The earliest ones are preserved in the works of Plato and Xenophon and all involve Socrates as the p ...

, and lyrical poetry. Edward Gibbon described the work as "a golden volume not unworthy of the leisure of

or Tully." In the 20th century there were close to four hundred manuscripts still surviving, a testament to its popularity. Of the work,

C. S. Lewis Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer and Anglican lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Oxford University (Magdalen College, 1925–1954) and Cambridge Univer ...

wrote: "To acquire a taste for it is almost to become naturalised in the Middle Ages."

Reconstruction of lost songs

Hundreds of Latin songs were recorded in neumes from the ninth century through to the thirteenth century, including settings of the poetic passages from Boethius's ''The Consolation of Philosophy''. The music of this song repertory had long been considered irretrievably lost because the notational signs indicated only melodic outlines, relying on now-lapsed oral traditions to fill in the missing details. However
research conducted
b
Dr Sam Barrett
at the University of Cambridge, extended in collaboration with medieval music ensemble

Sequentia A sequence (Latin: ''sequentia'', plural: ''sequentiae'') is a chant or hymn sung or recited during the liturgical celebration of the Eucharist for many Christian denominations, before the proclamation of the Gospel. By the time of the Council of ...

, has shown that principles of musical setting for this period can be identified, providing crucial information to enable modern realisations. Sequentia performed th
world premiere
of the reconstructed songs from Boethius's ''The Consolation of Philosophy'' at Pembroke College, Cambridge, in April 2016, bringing to life music not heard in over 1,000 years; a number of the songs were subsequently recorded on the CD
Boethius: Songs of Consolation. Metra from 11th-Century Canterbury
' (Glossa, 2018). The detective story behind the recovery of these lost songs is told i
a documentary film
an
a website
launched by the University of Cambridge in 2018 provides further details of the reconstruction process, bringing togethe
manuscriptsreconstructions
an
video resources

References

Sources

* Boethius
''The Consolation of Philosophy''
** Trans. Richard H. Green, (Library of the Liberal Arts), 1962. ** Trans. Joel C. Relihan, (Hackett Publishing), 2001. ** Trans. P. G. Walsh, (Oxford World's Classics), 2001. ** Trans. Victor Watts, (Penguin Classics), 2000. * Sanderson Beck
''The Consolation of Boethius''
an analysis and commentary. 1996. * * . * Henry Chadwick, ''Boethius: The Consolations of Music, Logic, Theology and Philosophy'', 1990, * . * '' The Cambridge History of English and American Literature''
Volume I Ch.6.5: ''De Consolatione Philosophiae''
1907–1921. * Relihan, Joel C., ''Ancient Menippean Satire'', 1993, * Relihan, Joel C., ''The Prisoner's Philosophy: Life and Death in Boethius's Consolation, '' 2007, . * Cochrane, Charles Norris., ''Christianity and Classical Culture'', 1940, .

External links

''The Consolation of Philosophy''
many translations and commentaries from

Internet Archive The Internet Archive is an American digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, ...

''Consolatio Philosophiae''
in the original Latin with English comments at the University of Georgetown
''Consolatio Philosophiae''
from Project Gutenberg, HTML conversion, originally translated by H. R. James, London 1897.
''The Consolation of Philosophy''
Translated by: W.V. Cooper : J.M. Dent and Company London 1902 The Temple Classics, edited by Israel Golancz M.A. Online reading and multiple ebook formats at Ex-classics. * Medieval translations int
Old English
by Alfred the Great,
Old High German
by

Middle (originally Old) French
by Jean de Meun, an
Middle English
by Geoffrey Chaucer *
''First Performance in 1000 years: lost songs from the Middle Ages are brought back to life''
{{DEFAULTSORT:Consolation Of Philosophy, The 524 6th-century Latin books Dialogues Latin prose texts Medieval philosophical literature Prison writings Theodicy Visionary literature