HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Taa , also known as ǃXóõ (also spelled ǃKhong and ǃXoon; ), is a Tuu language notable for its large number of
phoneme In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language. For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-w ...
s, perhaps the largest in the world. It is also notable for having perhaps the heaviest functional load of
click consonant Click consonants, or clicks, are speech sounds that occur as consonants in many languages of Southern Africa and in three languages of East Africa. Examples familiar to English-speakers are the '' tut-tut'' (British spelling) or '' tsk! tsk!'' ...
s, with one count finding that 82% of basic vocabulary items started with a click. Most speakers live in
Botswana Botswana (, ), officially the Republic of Botswana ( tn, Lefatshe la Botswana, label= Setswana, ), is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. Botswana is topographically flat, with approximately 70 percent of its territory being the Kalah ...
, but a few hundred live in
Namibia Namibia (, ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa. Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and ...
. The people call themselves ǃXoon (pl. ǃXooŋake) or ʼNǀohan (pl. Nǀumde), depending on the dialect they speak. The Tuu languages are one of the three traditional language families that make up the
Khoisan languages The Khoisan languages (; also Khoesan or Khoesaan) are a group of African languages originally classified together by Joseph Greenberg. Khoisan languages share click consonants and do not belong to other African language families. For much of ...
. is the word for 'human being'; the local name of the language is , from 'language'. (ǃXóõ) is an ethnonym used at opposite ends of the Taa-speaking area, but not by Taa speakers in between. Most living Taa speakers are ethnic ǃXoon (plural ) or 'Nǀohan (plural ). Taa shares a number of characteristic features with West ǂʼAmkoe and Gǀui, which together are considered part of the Kalahari Basin
sprachbund A sprachbund (, lit. "language federation"), also known as a linguistic area, area of linguistic convergence, or diffusion area, is a group of languages that share areal features resulting from geographical proximity and language contact. The lang ...
.


Classification

Until the rediscovery of a few elderly speakers of Nǁng in the 1990s, Taa was thought to be the last surviving member of the Tuu language family.


Dialects

A Namibian girl, speaking in Taa, discusses an initiation ceremony There is sufficient dialectal variation in Taa that it might be better described as a
dialect continuum A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of language varieties spoken across some geographical area such that neighboring varieties are mutually intelligible, but the differences accumulate over distance so that widely separated varie ...
than a single language. Taa dialects fall into two groups, suggesting a historical spread from west to east: *West Taa: Anthony Traill's West ǃXoon and Dorothea Bleek's Nǀuǁʼen *East Taa **ǃAma (Western) **(Eastern) ***East ǃXoon (Lone Tree) ***Tsaasi–ǂHuan ****Tsaasi ****ǂHuan Traill worked primarily with East ǃXoon, and the DoBeS project is working with ʼNǀohan (in East Taa) and West ǃXoon. ǀʼAuni and Kiǀhazi, previously considered dialects of Taa, were more divergent than the dialects here, and are now classified as a distinct language, Lower Nossob.


Alternate names

The various dialects and social groups of the Taa, their many names, the unreliability of transcriptions found in the literature, and the fact that names may be shared between languages and that dialects have been classified, has resulted in a great deal of confusion. Traill (1974), for example, spent two chapters of his ''Compleat Guide to the Koon'' icdisentangling names and dialects.Yvonne Treis, 1998, "Names of Khoisan Languages and their Variants" The name ''ǃXoon'' (more precisely ''ǃXóõ)'' is only used at Aminius Reserve in Namibia, around Lone Tree where Traill primarily worked, and at Dzutshwa (Botswana). It is, however, used by the ǃXoon for all Taa speakers. It has been variously spelled ''ǃxō, ǃkɔ̃ː, ǃko/ǃkõ, Khong,'' and the fully anglicized ''Koon''. Bleek's Nǀuǁʼen dialect has been spelled ''ǀNuǁen, ǀNuǁe꞉n, Ngǀuǁen, Nguen, Nǀhuǁéi, ŋǀuǁẽin, ŋǀuǁẽi, ŋǀuǁen, ǀuǁen.'' It has also been called by the ambiguous Khoekhoe term ''Nǀusan (Nǀu-san, Nǀūsā, Nǀuusaa, Nǀhusi),'' sometimes rendered ''Nusan'' or ''Noosan'', which has been used for other languages in the area. A subgroup was known as ''Koon'' . This dialect is apparently extinct. Westphal studied ǂHuan (ǂhũa) dialect (or ''ǂHũa-ʘwani''), and used this name for the entire language. However, the term is ambiguous between Taa (Western ǂHũa) and ǂʼAmkoe (Eastern ǂHũa), and for this reason Traill chose to call the language ''ǃXóõ''. Tsaasi dialect is quite similar to ǂHuan, and like ''ǂHuan,'' the name is used ambiguously for a dialect of ǂʼAmkoe. This is a Tswana name, variously rendered ''Tshasi, Tshase, Tʃase, Tsase,'' ''Sasi'', and ''Sase''. The Tswana term for Bushmen, ''Masarwa'', is frequently encountered. More specific to the Taa are ''Magon (Magong)'' and the ''Tshasi'' mentioned above. The Taa distinguish themselves along at least some of the groups above. Like many San peoples, they also distinguish themselves by the environment they live in (plain people, river people, etc.), and also by direction. Traill reports the following: :' "westerners" :' "southerners" :' "in-betweeners" :' "pure people" Heinz reports that ' is an exonym given by other Bushmen, and that the Taa call themselves ''.'' The Taa refer to their language as ' "people's language". Westphal (1971) adopted the word ' "person" as the name for the Southern Khoisan language family, which is now called ''Tuu''. The East ǃXoon term for the language is ''ǃxóɲa ǂâã'' .Traill (1994)


Phonology

Taa has at least 58 consonants, 31 vowels, and four tones (Traill 1985, 1994 on East ǃXoon), or at least 87 consonants, 20 vowels, and two tones (DoBeS 2008 on West ǃXoon), by many counts the most of any known language if non-oral vowel qualities are counted as different from corresponding oral vowels. These include 20 (Traill) or 43 (DoBeS)
click consonant Click consonants, or clicks, are speech sounds that occur as consonants in many languages of Southern Africa and in three languages of East Africa. Examples familiar to English-speakers are the '' tut-tut'' (British spelling) or '' tsk! tsk!'' ...
s and several vowel
phonation The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, ''phonation'' is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the defi ...
s, though opinions vary as to which of the 130 (Traill) or 164 (DoBeS) consonant sounds are single segments and which are
consonant cluster In linguistics, a consonant cluster, consonant sequence or consonant compound, is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word ''splits''. In the education fi ...
s.


Tones

Anthony Traill describes four tones for the East ǃXoon dialect: high , mid , low , and mid-falling . Patterns for bisyllabic bases include high-high, mid-mid, mid-mid-falling, and low-low. DoBeS describes only two tonemes, high and low, for the West ǃXoon dialect. By analyzing each base as bimoraic, Traill's four tones are mapped onto �á �á �à and �à Unlike Traill, Naumann does not find a four-way contrast on monomoraic grammatical forms in Eastern ǃXoõ data. In addition to lexical tone, Traill describes East ǃXoon nouns as falling into two tone classes according to the melody induced on concordial morphemes and transitive verbs: either level (Tone Class I) or falling (Tone Class II). Transitive object nouns from Tone Class I trigger mid/mid-rising tone in transitive verbs, while Tone Class 2 objects correlate with any tone contour. Naumann finds the same results in the eastern ʼNǀohan dialect.


Vowels

Taa has five vowel qualities, . The Traill and DoBeS descriptions differ in the
phonation The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, ''phonation'' is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the defi ...
s of these vowels; it is not clear if this reflects a dialectal difference or a difference of analysis.


East ǃXoon (Traill)

Traill describes the phonations of the East ǃXoon dialect as plain , murmured , or glottalized . may also be both glottalized and murmured , as well as pharyngealized / or strident ('sphincteric') /. may be both pharyngealized and glottalized , for 26 vowels not counting nasalization or length. Murmured vowels after plain consonants contrast with plain vowels after aspirated consonants, and likewise glottalized vowels with ejective consonants, so these are phonations of the vowels and not assimilation with consonant phonation. Vowels may be long or short, but long vowels may be sequences rather than distinct
phoneme In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language. For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-w ...
s. The other vowel quality sequences—better known as
diphthong A diphthong ( ; , ), also known as a gliding vowel, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of the speech ...
s—disregarding the added complexity of
phonation The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, ''phonation'' is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the defi ...
, are . All plain vowels may be nasalized. No other phonation may be nasalized, but nasalization occurs in combination with other phonations as the second vowel of a sequence ("long vowel" or "diphthong"). These sequences alternate dialectally with vowel plus
velar nasal The voiced velar nasal, also known as agma, from the Greek word for 'fragment', is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It is the sound of ''ng'' in English ''sing'' as well as ''n'' before velar consonants as in ''Engl ...
. That is, the name ǃXóõ may be dialectally , and this in turn may be phonemically , since does not occur word-finally. However, this cannot explain the short nasal vowels, so Taa has at least 31 vowels. A long, glottalized, murmured, nasalized ''o'' with falling tone is written . A long, strident nasalized ''o'' with low tone is written , since Traill analyzes stridency as phonemically pharyngealized murmur. (Note that phonetically these are distinct phonations.)


West ǃXoon (DoBeS)

DoBeS describes the phonations of the West ǃXoon dialect as plain, ''a e i o u;'' nasalized, ''an en in on un;'' epiglottalized or pharyngealized, ''aq eq iq oq uq;'' strident, ''aqh eqh iqh oqh uqh;'' and glottalized or 'tense', ''aʼ eʼ iʼ oʼ uʼ.''


Consonants

Taa is unusual in allowing mixed voicing in its consonants. These have been analyzed as prevoiced, but also as consonant clusters. When
homorganic In phonetics, a homorganic consonant (from ''homo-'' "same" and ''organ'' "(speech) organ") is a consonant sound that is articulated in the same place of articulation as another. For example, , and are homorganic consonants of one another sinc ...
, as in t such clusters are listed in the chart below. Taa consonants are complex, and it is not clear how much of the difference between the dialects is real and how much is an artifact of analysis.


East ǃXoon (Traill)

Consonants in parentheses are rare. The nasal only occurs between vowels, and only word finally (and then only in some dialects, for what are nasal vowels elsewhere), so these may be
allophone In phonology, an allophone (; from the Greek , , 'other' and , , 'voice, sound') is a set of multiple possible spoken soundsor '' phones''or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, (as in ' ...
s. also only occur in medial position, except that the last is an allophone of rare initial . and (not in the table) occur in loans, mostly English. Taa is typologically unusual in having mixed-voice ejectives. Juǀʼhoansi, which is part of the same
sprachbund A sprachbund (, lit. "language federation"), also known as a linguistic area, area of linguistic convergence, or diffusion area, is a group of languages that share areal features resulting from geographical proximity and language contact. The lang ...
as Taa, has mixed voicing in . Taa may have as few as 83 click sounds, if the more complex clicks are analyzed as clusters. Given the intricate clusters posited seen in the non-click consonants, it is not surprising that many of the Taa clicks should be analyzed as clusters. However, there is some debate whether these are actually clusters; all non-Khoisan languages in the world that have clusters allow clusters with
sonorant In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant or resonant is a speech sound that is produced with continuous, non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; these are the manners of articulation that are most often voiced in the world's languages. Vowels are ...
s like ''r, l, w, j'' (as in English ''tree, sleep, quick, cue''), and this does not occur in Taa. There are five click articulations: bilabial, dental,
lateral Lateral is a geometric term of location which may refer to: Healthcare *Lateral (anatomy), an anatomical direction * Lateral cricoarytenoid muscle * Lateral release (surgery), a surgical procedure on the side of a kneecap Phonetics * Lateral c ...
, alveolar, and palatal. There are nineteen series, differing in phonation, manner, and complexity (see airstream contour). These are perfectly normal consonants in Taa, and indeed are preferred over non-clicks in word-initial position. The DoBeS project takes Traill's cluster analysis to mean that only the twenty tenuis, voiced, nasal, and voiceless nasal clicks are basic, with the rest being clusters of the tenuis and voiced clicks with and either or . Work on Taa's sister language Nǁng suggests that all clicks in both languages have a uvular or rear articulation, and that the clicks considered to be uvular here are actually lingual–pulmonic and lingual–glottalic airstream contours. It may be that the 'prevoiced' consonants of Taa, including prevoiced clicks, can also be analyzed as contour consonants, in this case with voicing contours. * DoBeS only matches 17 series to Traill, as the – and – distinctions he discovered had not yet been published. DoBeS and , respectively, correspond to the former pair, while and (presumably in that order, as uvular clicks tend to have a delayed release) correspond to the latter pair. Traill's account of East ǃXoon leaves for voiceless series of clicks without equivalents with a voiced lead. The DoBeS account of West ǃXoon, which uses voicing for morphological derivation to a greater extent than East ǃXoon does, has four additional series, written nꞰʼʼ, gꞰʼ, gꞰqʼ and nꞰhh in their practical orthography. The first three match the unpaired glottalized series of Traill, (= ), , . If Traill's series is the voiced equivalent of plain aspirated , rather than delayed aspirated, that would leave the DobeS nꞰhh series as voiced delayed aspiration. All nasal clicks have twin airstreams, since the air passing through the nose bypasses the tongue. Usually this is
pulmonic egressive In human speech, egressive sounds are sounds in which the air stream is created by pushing air out through the mouth or nose. The three types of egressive sounds are pulmonic egressive (from the lungs), glottalic egressive (from the glottis ...
. However, the series in Taa is characterized by pulmonic '' ingressive'' nasal airflow. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:268) state that "This ǃXóõ click is probably unique among the sounds of the world's languages that, even in the middle of a sentence, it may have ingressive pulmonic airflow." Taa is the only language known to contrast voiceless nasal and voiceless nasal aspirated (i.e. delayed aspirated) clicks (Miller 2011).


West ǃXoon (DoBeS)

West ǃXoon has 164 consonants in a strict unit analysis, including 111 clicks in 23 series, which under a cluster analysis reduce to 87 consonants, including 43 clicks. These are written in the practical orthography (Naumann 2008). Marginal consonants are not marked as such. Vowel nasalization is only phonemic on the second mora (in CCVV etc. syllables), as it is a phonetic effect of the clicks on the first mora. The clicks do not make the following vowel breathy, maintaining a contrast between and . Likewise, while clicks do make the following vowel creaky, there is a delayed onset to the vowel and the amplitude of the glottalization of is less than that of with a phonemically creaky vowel. In an attempt to keep the phonemic inventory as symmetric as possible, the DoBeS team analyzed as segments two of the click types that Traill analyzed as clusters. These are the pre-glottalized nasal clicks, ''ʼnꞰ'', which Traill had analyzed as , and the voiced aspirated clicks, ''gꞰh'', which Traill had analyzed as . The expectation, from the morphology of ǃXoon, for voiceless-voiced pairs of click clusters led to the discovery of several series not distinguished by Traill. (This morphology appears to be more pervasive in West ǃXoon than in the East ǃXoon dialect that Traill worked on.) These are voiced click types which may not exist in East ǃXoon at all, namely ''nꞰʼʼ, nꞰhh, gꞰʼ,'' and ''gꞰqʼ.'' It also lead to the rediscovery of two series that Traill had not been able to publish before his death. Thus the DoBeS team distinguishes two series, ''Ʞqh'' and ''Ʞh,'' for Trail's ''Ʞqh'' and ''Ʞkh'', as well as ''Ʞʼʼ'' and ''Ʞʼ'' for Traill's ''Ʞqʼ'' and ''Ʞkʼ'' (or perhaps vice versa). If Traill's ''Ʞkh'' series is to be analyzed as ''kꞰ + h'', then that would require a different assessment of Traill's delayed-aspiration series. Under the contour analysis of Miller (2009), the distinction between simple and contour clicks largely parallels the DoBeS identification of clusters, apart from the last four rows (Ʞʼʼ, nꞰʼʼ, Ʞhh, nꞰhh), which are considered to be simple clicks.


Phonotactics

The Taa syllable structure, as described by DoBeS, may be one of the following: *CVV *CCVV *CVC2V *CCVC2V *CVN *CCVN where C is a consonant, V is a vowel, and N is a nasal stop. There is a very limited number of consonants which can occur in the second (C2) position and only certain vowel sequences (VV and V…V) occur. The possible consonant clusters (CC) is covered above; C2 may be .


Grammar

Taa is a subject–verb–object language with serial verbs and inflecting
preposition Prepositions and postpositions, together called adpositions (or broadly, in traditional grammar, simply prepositions), are a class of words used to express spatial or temporal relations (''in'', ''under'', ''towards'', ''before'') or mark various ...
s.
Genitive In grammar, the genitive case ( abbreviated ) is the grammatical case that marks a word, usually a noun, as modifying another word, also usually a noun—thus indicating an attributive relationship of one noun to the other noun. A genitive can ...
s,
adjective In linguistics, an adjective ( abbreviated ) is a word that generally modifies a noun or noun phrase or describes its referent. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun. Traditionally, adjectives were considered one of the m ...
s,
relative clause A relative clause is a clause that modifies a noun or noun phraseRodney D. Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum, ''A Student's Introduction to English Grammar'', CUP 2005, p. 183ff. and uses some grammatical device to indicate that one of the argument ...
s, and numbers come after the nouns they apply to.
Reduplication In linguistics, reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change. The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Ed ...
is used to form
causative In linguistics, a causative ( abbreviated ) is a valency-increasing operationPayne, Thomas E. (1997). Describing morphosyntax: A guide for field linguists'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 173–186. that indicates that a subject either ...
s. There are five
nominal Nominal may refer to: Linguistics and grammar * Nominal (linguistics), one of the parts of speech * Nominal, the adjectival form of " noun", as in "nominal agreement" (= "noun agreement") * Nominal sentence, a sentence without a finite verb * N ...
agreement Agreement may refer to: Agreements between people and organizations * Gentlemen's agreement, not enforceable by law * Trade agreement, between countries * Consensus, a decision-making process * Contract, enforceable in a court of law ** Meeting of ...
classes and an additional two tone groups. Agreement occurs on pronouns, transitive verbs (with the object), adjectives, prepositions, and some particles.


Numbers

Taa has only three native numbers. All numbers above three are loans from Tswana or Kgalagadi. # ǂʔûã # ǂnûm # ǁâe


Phrases

The phrases from Eastern ǃXóõ were compiled by Anthony Traill:


References

* * *Anthony Traill (2018). ''A Trilingual ǃXóõ Dictionary. ǃXóõ–English–Setswana.'' Ed. Hirosi Nakagawa & Anderson Chebanne. (Research in Khoisan Studies, 37.) Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.


External links


DoBeS Taa language project

Large collection of ǃXóõ words on Wiktionary

Swadesh list for ǃXóõ


* ttp://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\pkh\taa&first=0 Taa basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database {{Languages of Namibia Tuu languages Languages of Botswana Languages of Namibia