Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other
polity who controls the
foreign policy and relations of a
tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal
autonomy.
While the subordinate party is called a
vassal,
vassal state or
tributary state, the dominant party is called a suzerain. While the rights and obligations of a vassal are called vassalage, the rights and obligations of a suzerain are called suzerainty.
Suzerainty differs from
sovereignty in that the dominant power allows tributary states to be technically independent, but enjoy only limited self-rule. Although the situation has existed in a number of historical empires, it is considered difficult to reconcile with 20th- or 21st-century concepts of
international law, in which sovereignty is a binary concept, which either exists or does not. While a sovereign state can agree by treaty to become a
protectorate of a stronger power, modern international law does not recognise any way of making this relationship compulsory on the weaker power. Suzerainty is a practical, ''
de facto
''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with '' de jure'' ("by l ...
'' situation, rather than a legal, ''
de jure
In law and government, ''de jure'' ( ; , "by law") describes practices that are legally recognized, regardless of whether the practice exists in reality. In contrast, ("in fact") describes situations that exist in reality, even if not legall ...
'' one.
Imperial China
Historically, the
Emperor of China
''Huangdi'' (), translated into English as Emperor, was the superlative title held by monarchs of China who ruled various imperial regimes in Chinese history. In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was considered the Son of Heav ...
saw himself as the centre of the
entire civilised world, and diplomatic relations in
East Asia were based on the theory that all rulers of the world derived their authority from the Chinese emperor. The degree to which this authority existed evolved from
dynasty to dynasty. However, even during periods when political power was distributed evenly across several Chinese political entities, Chinese political theory recognised only one legitimate emperor, and asserted that his authority was paramount throughout the world. Diplomatic relations with the Chinese emperor were made on the theory of tributary states, although tributary relations in practice would often result in a form of trade, under the theory that the emperor in his kindness would reward the tributary state with gifts of equal or greater value.
This system broke down in the 18th and 19th centuries in two ways. First, during the 17th century, China was ruled by the
Manchu-led
Qing dynasty, which ruled over a multi-ethnic empire and justified their rule through different theories of rulership. While not contradicting traditional Chinese theories of the emperor as the universal ruler, the Qing dynasty made a distinction between areas of the world where they ruled and areas where they did not. Second, the system further broke down as China was
confronted by Western powers whose theories of sovereignty were based on their own version of international law and relations between separate states.
For centuries, China had claimed suzerain authority over numerous adjacent areas. The areas had internal autonomy but were theoretically under the protection of China in terms of foreign affairs. By the 19th century, the relationships were nominal, and China exerted little or no actual control. Foreign powers rejected the Chinese concept and eventually seized these areas from Chinese influence. Japan took
Korea and the
Ryukyu Islands
The , also known as the or the , are a chain of Japanese islands that stretch southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan: the Ōsumi, Tokara, Amami, Okinawa, and Sakishima Islands (further divided into the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands), with Yon ...
,
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
took Vietnam, and Britain took
Upper Burma.
One way that the European states attempted to describe the relations between the Qing dynasty and its outlying regions was in terms of suzerainty, although this did not completely match the traditional Chinese diplomatic theory. Since the colonial times, Britain had regarded
Tibet as being under Chinese suzerainty, but in 2008 the British Foreign Secretary
David Miliband called that word an "anachronism" in a statement, and recognized Tibet as part of China.
Ancient Israel and Near East
Suzerainty treaties and similar covenants and agreements between Middle Eastern states were quite prevalent during the pre-monarchic and
monarchy periods in
Ancient Israel. The
Hittites,
Egyptians, and
Assyrians had been suzerains to the
Israelites and other tribal kingdoms of the
Levant
The Levant () is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia. In its narrowest sense, which is in use today in archaeology and other cultural contexts, it is ...
from 1200 to 600 BCE. The structure of Jewish covenant law was similar to the Hittite form of suzerain.
Each treaty would typically begin with an "Identification" of the Suzerain, followed by an historical prologue cataloguing the relationship between the two groups "with emphasis on the benevolent actions of the suzerain towards the vassal".
Following the historical prologue came the stipulation. This included tributes, obligations and other forms of subordination that would be imposed on the Israelites.
According to the Hittite form, after the stipulations were offered to the vassal, it was necessary to include a request to have copies of the treaty that would be read throughout the kingdom periodically.
The treaty would have divine and earthly witnesses purporting the treaty's validity, trustworthiness, and efficacy. This also tied into the blessings that would come from following the treaty and the curses from breaching it. For disobedience, curses would be given to those who had not remained steadfast in carrying out the stipulations of the treaty.
Hittite suzerainty treaty form
Below is a form of a Hittite suzerainty treaty.
*
Preamble: Identifies the parties involved in the treaty, the author, the title of the sovereign party, and usually his genealogy. It usually emphasises the greatness of the king or dominant party.
*
Prologue: Lists the deeds already performed by the Suzerain on behalf of the
vassal. This section would outline the previous relationship the two groups had up until that point with historical detail and facts that are very beneficial to scholars today, such as scholar George Mendenhall who focuses on this type of covenant as it pertained to the Israelite traditions.
The suzerain would document previous events in which they did a favor that benefitted the vassal. The purpose of this would show that the more powerful group was merciful and giving, therefore, the vassal should obey the stipulations that are presented in the treaty. It discusses the relationship between them as a personal relationship instead of a solely political one. Most importantly in this section, the vassal is agreeing to future obedience for the benefits that he received in the past without deserving them.
* Stipulations: Terms to be upheld by the vassal for the life of the treaty; defines how the vassal is obligated and gives more of the legalities associated with the covenant.
* Provision for annual public reading: A copy of the treaty was to be read aloud annually in the vassal state for the purpose of renewal and to inform the public of the expectations involved and increase respect for the sovereign party, usually the king.
* Divine witness to the treaty: These usually include the deities of both the Suzerain and the vassal, but put special emphasis on the deities of the vassal.
* Blessings if the stipulations of the treaty were upheld and curses if the stipulations were not upheld. These blessings and curses were generally seen to come from the gods instead of punishment by the dominant party for example.
* Sacrificial Meal: Both parties would share a meal to show their participation in the treaty.
India
British paramountcy
The
British East India Company conquered
Bengal in 1757, and gradually extended its
control over the whole of India. It annexed many of the erstwhile Indian kingdoms (hereafter "states") but entered into alliances with the others. Some states were created by the East India Company itself through the grant of
jagirs to influential allies. The states varied enormously in size and influence, with
Hyderabad at the upper end with 16.5 million people and an annual revenue of 100 million rupees and states like
Babri at the lower end with a population of 27 people and annual revenue of 80 rupees.
The principle was asserted in a letter by
Lord Reading
Marquess of Reading is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1926 for Rufus Isaacs, who had been Member of Parliament for Reading between 1904 and 1913, before serving as Viceroy of India and Lord Chief Justice of Engla ...
to the
Nizam of Hyderabad in 1926, "The sovereignty of the British Crown is supreme in India and therefore no ruler of an Indian State can justifiably claim to negotiate with the
British Government on an equal footing." This meant that the Indian states were
Crown dependencies or
protectorates of the British Indian government. They could not make war or have any direct dealings with foreign states. Neither did they enjoy full internal autonomy. The British government could and did interfere in their internal affairs if the imperial interests were involved or if it proved necessary in the interest of "so stated" good governance. In some cases, the British government also deposed the Indian princes.
Bose and
Jalal Jalal (Arabic: جلال) is a masculine given or family name. The name or word Jalal means majesty and is used to honor and venerate.
When the Arabic language spread across non-Arabic regions, Jalal has also become a name for some Arabic-speaking ...
say that the system of Paramountcy was a system of limited sovereignty only in appearance. In reality, it was a system of recruitment of a reliable base of support for the Imperial State. The support of the Imperial State obviated the need for the rulers to seek legitimacy through patronage and dialogue with their populations. Through their direct as well as indirect rule through the princes, the colonial State turned the population of India into 'subjects' rather than citizens.
The
Government of India Act 1935 envisaged that India would be a federation of autonomous provinces balanced by Indian princely states. This plan never came to fruition. The political conditions were oppressive in several princely states giving rise to political movements. Under pressure from
Mahatma Gandhi, the
Indian National Congress resolved not to interfere directly but called on the princes to increase civil liberties and reduce their own privileges.
With the impending
independence of India in 1947, the Governor-General
Lord Mountbatten announced that the British paramountcy over the Indian states would come to an end. The states were advised to 'accede' to one of the new Dominions,
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...
and
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
. An
Instrument of Accession was devised for this purpose. The
Congress
A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of ...
leaders agreed to the plan with the condition that Mountbatten ensure that the majority of the states within the Indian territory accede to India. Under pressure from the Governor-General, all the Indian states acceded to India save two,
Junagadh and
Hyderabad. The two states acceded later, under coercion from India.
Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to:
* Kashmir, the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent
* Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory
* Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered ...
, which shared a border with India as well as Pakistan,
acceded to India when a
Pakistan-backed invasion threatened its survival.
Sikkim
Following the
independence of India in 1947, a treaty signed between the
Chogyal of Sikkim
The Chogyal ("Dharma Kings", ) were the monarchs of the former Kingdom of Sikkim, which belonged to the Namgyal dynasty. The Chogyal was the absolute monarch of Sikkim from 1642 to 1975, when the monarchy was abolished and the Sikkimese people ...
Palden Thondup Namgyal
Palden Thondup Namgyal ( Sikkimese: ; Wylie: ''dpal-ldan don-grub rnam-rgyal'') (23 May 1923 – 29 January 1982) was the 12th and last Chogyal (king) of the Kingdom of Sikkim.
Biography
Palden thondup Namgyal was born on 23 May 1923 at the R ...
, and the
Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru gave
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...
suzerainty over
Kingdom of Sikkim
The Kingdom of Sikkim (Classical Tibetan and sip, འབྲས་ལྗོངས།, ''Drenjong''), officially Dremoshong (Classical Tibetan and sip, འབྲས་མོ་གཤོངས།) until the 1800s, was a hereditary monar ...
in exchange for it retaining its independence. This continued until 1975, when the
Sikkimese monarchy was abolished in favour of a merger into India.
Sikkim is now one of the
states of India.
Lakshadweep ( Laccadives)
Located in the
Arabian Sea,
Lakshadweep is a
Union territory of India off the coast of the southwestern state of
Kerala.
The
Aminidivi group of islands (
Amini,
Kadmat,
Kiltan
Kiltan or Kilthān Island is a coral island belonging to the Amindivi Subgroup of islands of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep in India.
It is at a distance of 291 km away from Kannur, 303 km away from Kozhikode, and west of the ...
,
Chetlat and
Bitra) came under the rule of
Tipu Sultan in 1787. They passed on to British control after the
Third Anglo-Mysore War and were attached to the
South Canara
South Canara was a district of the Madras Presidency of British India, located at . It comprised the towns of Kassergode and Udipi and adjacent villages, with the capital in Mangalore city. South Canara was one of the most heterogeneous areas ...
district. The rest of the islands became a suzerainty of the
Arakkal Kingdom
Arakkal Kingdom was a Muslim kingdom in Kannur town in Kannur district, in the state of Kerala, South India. The king was called Ali Raja and the ruling queen was called Arakkal Beevi. Arakkal kingdom included little more than the Cannanor ...
of
Cannanore
Kannur (), formerly known in English as Cannanore, is a city and a municipal corporation in the state of Kerala, India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Kannur district and situated north of the major port city and commercial ...
in return for a payment of annual tribute.
After a while, the
British took over the administration of those islands for non-payment of arrears. These islands were attached to the
Malabar district of the
Madras Presidency. In 1956, the
States Reorganisation Act
The States Reorganisation act, 1956 was a major reform of the boundaries of India's states and territories, organising them along linguistic lines.
Although additional changes to India's state boundaries have been made since 1956, the States ...
separated these islands from the mainland administrative units, forming a new union territory by combining all the islands.
Pakistan
The
princely states of the
British India which acceded to
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
maintained their sovereignty with the
Government of Pakistan acting as the suzerain until 1956 for
Bahawalpur,
Khairpur, and the
Balochistan States, 1969 for
Chitral and the
Frontier States, and 1974 for
Hunza and
Nagar
Nagar ( -nagar) can refer to:
Places Bangladesh
* Nagar, Rajshahi Division, a village
* Nagar, Barisal Division, a settlement
India
* Nagar taluka, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra State
* Nagar, Murshidabad, a village in West Bengal
* Nagar, Rajasthan ...
. All these territories have since been merged into Pakistan. These states were subject to the 'paramountcy' of the British Crown. The term was never precisely defined but it meant that the Indian states were subject to the suzerainty of the
British Crown exercised through the
Viceroy of India.
South African Republic
After the
First Boer War (1880–81), the
South African Republic
The South African Republic ( nl, Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek, abbreviated ZAR; af, Suid-Afrikaanse Republiek), also known as the Transvaal Republic, was an independent Boer Republic in Southern Africa which existed from 1852 to 1902, when i ...
was granted its independence, albeit under British suzerainty. During the
Second Boer War
The Second Boer War ( af, Tweede Vryheidsoorlog, , 11 October 189931 May 1902), also known as the Boer War, the Anglo–Boer War, or the South African War, was a conflict fought between the British Empire and the two Boer Republics (the So ...
(1899–1902), the South African Republic was annexed as the
Transvaal Colony, which existed until 1910, when it became the Province of Transvaal in the
Union of South Africa.
German Empire
Following the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (also known as the Treaty of Brest in Russia) was a separate peace treaty signed on 3 March 1918 between Russia and the Central Powers ( Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire), that ended Russi ...
(1918), the
German Empire received a very short-lived suzerainty over the
Baltic countries
The Baltic states, et, Balti riigid or the Baltic countries is a geopolitical term, which currently is used to group three countries: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. All three countries are members of NATO, the European Union, the Euro ...
of
Estonia
Estonia, formally the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, an ...
,
Latvia, and
Lithuania. New monarchies were created in Lithuania and the
United Baltic Duchy (which comprised the modern countries of Latvia and Estonia). The German aristocrats
Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach
Prince Wilhelm of Urach, Count of Württemberg, 2nd Duke of Urach (''Wilhelm Karl Florestan Gero Crescentius''; German: ''Fürst Wilhelm von Urach, Graf von Württemberg, 2. Herzog von Urach''; 30 May 1864 – 24 March 1928), was a German prince w ...
(in Lithuania), and
Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (in the United Baltic Duchy), were appointed as rulers. This plan was detailed by German Colonel General
Erich Ludendorff, who wrote, "German prestige demands that we should hold a strong protecting hand, not only over German citizens, but over all Germans."
Second World War
Despite being occupied by the
Axis powers, several Western and Asian countries were allowed to exercise self-rule. Several states were created in order to facilitate their occupation, including
Vichy France,
Manchukuo, the
Empire of Vietnam, the
Independent State of Croatia in Croatia and the
Lokot Autonomy in
Central Russia.
Historical suzerainties
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University ...
:
*
Principality of Serbia
*
Principality of Samos
*
Cretan State
*
Crimean Khanate
*
Septinsular Republic
*
Principality of Bulgaria
*
Principality of Moldavia
*
Republic of Ragusa
The Republic of Ragusa ( dlm, Republica de Ragusa; la, Respublica Ragusina; it, Repubblica di Ragusa; hr, Dubrovačka Republika; vec, Repùblega de Raguxa) was an aristocratic maritime republic centered on the city of Dubrovnik (''Ragusa'' ...
*
Principality of Romania
*
Serbian Despotate
*
Principality of Transylvania
*
Principality of Upper Hungary
The Principality of Upper Hungary ( hu, Felső-Magyarországi Fejedelemség; ota, او رتا ماجار, Orta Macâr, lit=Middle Hungary) was a short-lived Ottoman vassal state ruled by Imre Thököly.
Background
After peace treaty of Vasvá ...
*
Principality of Wallachia
*
Khedivate of Egypt
*
Vilayet of Tripolitania
The coastal region of what is today Libya was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1551 to 1912. First, from 1551 to 1864, as the Eyalet of Tripolitania ( ota, ایالت طرابلس غرب ''Eyālet-i Trâblus Gârb'') or ''Bey and Subjects of Tri ...
*
Eyalet of Tunis
Ottoman Tunisia, refers to the episode of the Turkish presence in Ifriqiya during the course of three centuries from the 16th century until the 18th century, when Tunis was officially integrated into the Ottoman Empire as the Eyalet of Tunis. Ev ...
*
Regency of Algiers
Duchy of Prussia/
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia (german: Königreich Preußen, ) was a German kingdom that constituted the state of Prussia between 1701 and 1918.Marriott, J. A. R., and Charles Grant Robertson. ''The Evolution of Prussia, the Making of an Empire''. ...
/
North German Confederation/
German Empire
*
Electorate of Brandenburg (
Brandenburg-Prussia)
*
Principality of Neuchâtel
A principality (or sometimes princedom) can either be a monarchical feudatory or a sovereign state, ruled or reigned over by a regnant-monarch with the title of prince and/or princess, or by a monarch with another title considered to fall under ...
*
County of Stolberg-Wernigerode
** County of Stolberg-Schwarza (after 1748)
**
County of Stolberg-Gedern (after 1804)
*
Grand Duchy of Posen
*
Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg
*
Grand Duchy of Baden (
Franco-Prussian War)
*
Kingdom of Bavaria (Franco-Prussian War)
*
Kingdom of Württemberg (Franco-Prussian War)
*
Grand Duchy of Hesse and by Rhine (Franco-Prussian War)
*
Kingdom of Finland
*
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
*
United Baltic Duchy
** Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
** Duchy of Estonia and Livonia
*
Kingdom of Lithuania
*
Kingdom of Poland
*
Belarusian Democratic Republic
*
Ukrainian People's Republic (
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (also known as the Treaty of Brest in Russia) was a separate peace treaty signed on 3 March 1918 between Russia and the Central Powers ( Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire), that ended Russi ...
)
*
Ukrainian State
*
Crimean Regional Government
*
Don Republic
*
Kuban People's Republic
*
Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus
*
Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic
The Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (TDFR; (), (). 22 April – 28 May 1918) was a short-lived state in the Caucasus that included most of the territory of the present-day Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, as well as ...
(
Otto von Lossow mission)
*
Democratic Republic of Georgia (
Treaty of Poti)
Qing Dynasty:
*
Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million ...
[Dickinson, Edwin De Witt]
''The Equality of States in International Law''
p239
*
Tibet
*
Korea
*
Vietnam
*
Myanmar
Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...
*
Thailand
Empire of Japan:
*
Ryukyu Kingdom
*
Korea
In
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
:
*
Habsburg control, as
Holy Roman Emperor, over
Liechtenstein (1719–1918), previously
Schellenberg (1499–1719) and
County of Vaduz (1322–1719)
* Ireland, under the control of the
High King of Ireland.
*
Piombino
Piombino is an Italian town and '' comune'' of about 35,000 inhabitants in the province of Livorno ( Tuscany). It lies on the border between the Ligurian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea, in front of Elba Island and at the northern side of Maremma.
...
(
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies)
In
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...
:
*
Kingdom of Larantuka
See also
*
Associated state
*
Client state
*
Finlandization
*
Hegemony
*
Imperialism
*
Mandala (Southeast Asian history)
*
Overking
*
Puppet state
*
Satellite state
*
Satrap
*''
Sadae''
*
Special Administrative Region
*
Tributary state
*
Tributary system of China
*
Vassal state
References
Inline citations
Sources cited
*
*
*
*
*
{{Authority control
Types of administrative division
International law
Independence
Sovereignty