Rafael Sebastián Guillén Vicente (born 19 June 1957) is a Mexican insurgent, the former military leader and spokesman for the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) in the ongoing

Chiapas conflict The Chiapas conflict ( Spanish: ''Conflicto de Chiapas'') comprises the 1994 Zapatista uprising, the 1995 Zapatista crisis and ensuing tension between the Mexican state and the indigenous peoples and subsistence farmers of Chiapas from the 1990 ...

,Pasztor, S. B. (2004). Marcos, Subcomandante. In D. Coerver, S. Pasztor & R. Buffington, Mexico: An encyclopedia of contemporary culture and history. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO and an

anti-capitalist Anti-capitalism is a political ideology and movement encompassing a variety of attitudes and ideas that oppose capitalism. In this sense, anti-capitalists are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economic system, such as so ...

and anti-

neoliberal Neoliberalism (also neo-liberalism) is a term used to signify the late 20th century political reappearance of 19th-century ideas associated with free-market capitalism after it fell into decline following the Second World War. A prominent f ...

globalization Globalization, or globalisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. The term ''globalization'' first appeared in the early 20t ...

icon. Widely known by his initial ''

nom de guerre A pseudonym (; ) or alias () is a fictitious name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which differs from their original or true name ( orthonym). This also differs from a new name that entirely or legally replaces an individu ...

'' Subcomandante Insurgente Marcos (frequently shortened to simply Subcomandante Marcos), he has subsequently employed several other pseudonyms: he called himself Delegate Zero during the Other Campaign (2006–2007), and since May 2014 has gone by the name Subcomandante Insurgente Galeano (again, frequently with the "Insurgente" omitted), which he adopted in honor of his fallen comrade "Teacher Galeano". Marcos bears the title and rank of Subcomandante (or "Subcommander" in English), as opposed to Comandante (or "Commander" in English), because, he is subordinate to, and under the command of, the indigenous commanders who constitute the EZLN's Clandestine Revolutionary Indigenous Committee's General Command (CCRI-CG in Spanish). Born in Tampico,

Tamaulipas Tamaulipas (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Tamaulipas), is a state in the northeast region of Mexico; one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entiti ...

, Marcos earned a degree from the Faculty of Philosophy and Literature at the prestigious

National Autonomous University of Mexico The National Autonomous University of Mexico ( es, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM) is a public research university in Mexico. It is consistently ranked as one of the best universities in Latin America, where it's also the bigges ...

(UNAM), and taught at the Autonomous Metropolitan University (UAM) for several years during the early 1980s. During this time he became increasingly involved with a guerrilla group known as the National Liberation Forces (FLN), before leaving the university and moving to Chiapas in 1984. The Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN) ( Zapatista Army of National Liberation; often simply called the Zapatistas) was the local, Chiapas wing of FLN, founded in the Lacandon Jungle in 1983, initially functioning as a self-defense unit dedicated to protecting Chiapas's Mayan people from evictions and encroachment on their land. While not Mayan himself, Marcos emerged as the group's military leader, and when the EZLN, acting independently of the FLN, began its rebellion on 1 January 1994, he served as its spokesman. Known for his trademark ski mask and pipe and for his charismatic personality, Marcos coordinated the EZLN's 1994 uprising, headed up the subsequent peace negotiations, and has played a prominent role throughout the Zapatistas' struggle in the following decades. After the ceasefire the government declared on day 12 of the revolt, the Zapatistas transitioned from revolutionary guerrillas to an armed social movement, with Marcos's role transitioning from military strategist to public relations strategist. He became the Zapatistas’ spokesperson and interface with the public, penning communiqués, holding press conferences, hosting gatherings, granting interviews, delivering speeches, devising plebiscites, organizing marches, orchestrating campaigns and twice touring Mexico, all with the aim to attract national and international media attention and public support for the Zapatistas. In 2001, he headed a delegation of Zapatista commanders to Mexico City to deliver their message on promoting indigenous rights before the Mexican Congress, attracting widespread public and media attention. In 2006, Marcos made another public tour of Mexico, which was known as

The Other Campaign The Other Campaign ( es, La otra campaña) is a political program by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation for the recognition and protection of indigenous rights and autonomy in Mexico.Mora, M. (2007). Zapatista anticapitalist politics an ...

. In May 2014, Marcos stated that the

persona A persona (plural personae or personas), depending on the context, is the public image of one's personality, the social role that one adopts, or simply a fictional character. The word derives from Latin, where it originally referred to a theatr ...

of Subcomandante Marcos had been "a hologram" and no longer existed. Many media outlets interpreted the message as Marcos retiring as the Zapatistas' military leader and spokesman. Marcos is also a prolific writer, and his considerable literary talents have been widely acknowledged by prominent writers and intellectuals, with hundreds of communiqués and several books being attributed to him. Most of his writings are

while advocating for indigenous people's rights, but he has also written poetry, children's stories, folktales and has co-authored a crime novel. He has been hailed by

Régis Debray Jules Régis Debray (; born 2 September 1940) is a French philosopher, journalist, former government official and academic. He is known for his theorization of mediology, a critical theory of the long-term transmission of cultural meaning in ...

as "the best Latin American writer today". Published translations of his writings exist in at least fourteen languages.See Subcomandante Marcos bibliography

Early life

Guillén was born on 19 June 1957, in Tampico, Tamaulipas, to Alfonso Guillén and Maria del Socorro Vicente. He was the fourth of eight children. A former elementary school teacher, Alfonso owned a local chain of furniture stores, and the family is usually described as middle-class. In a 2001 interview with

Gabriel García Márquez Gabriel José de la Concordia García Márquez (; 6 March 1927 – 17 April 2014) was a Colombian novelist, short-story writer, screenwriter, and journalist, known affectionately as Gabo () or Gabito () throughout Latin America. Considered one ...

and Roberto Pombo, Guillén described his upbringing as middle-class, "without financial difficulties", and said his parents fostered a love for language and reading in their children.The Punch Card and the Hourglass
by García Márquez and Roberto Pombo, New Left Review, May – June 2001, Issue 9 While still "very young", Guillén came to know of, and admire,

Che Guevara Ernesto Che Guevara (; 14 June 1928The date of birth recorded on /upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Ernesto_Guevara_Acta_de_Nacimiento.jpg his birth certificatewas 14 June 1928, although one tertiary source, (Julia Constenla, quoted ...

— an admiration that would persist throughout his adulthood. Guillén attended high school at the Instituto Cultural Tampico, a

Jesuit , image = Ihs-logo.svg , image_size = 175px , caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits , abbreviation = SJ , nickname = Jesuits , formation = , founders ...

school in Tampico. Later he moved to

Mexico City Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America. One of the world's alpha cities, it is located in the Valley o ...

and graduated from the

(UNAM), majoring in philosophy. There he became immersed in the school's pervasive Marxist rhetoric of the 1970s and 1980s and won an award for the best dissertation (drawing on the then-recent work of Althusser and Foucault) of his class. He began working as a professor at the Autonomous Metropolitan University (UAM) while finishing his dissertation at UNAM, but left after a couple of years. It is thought that it was at UAM where he came into contact with, and subsequently joined the ranks of, with the Forces of National Liberation, the

Maoist Maoism, officially called Mao Zedong Thought by the Chinese Communist Party, is a variety of Marxism–Leninism that Mao Zedong developed to realise a socialist revolution in the agricultural, pre-industrial society of the Republic of Ch ...

mother organization of what would later become the EZLN. In 1984, he abandoned his academic career in the capital and left for the mountains of

Chiapas Chiapas (; Tzotzil and Tzeltal: ''Chyapas'' ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Chiapas), is one of the states that make up the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It comprises 124 municipalities ...

to convince the poor, indigenous

Mayan Mayan most commonly refers to: * Maya peoples, various indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica and northern Central America * Maya civilization, pre-Columbian culture of Mesoamerica and northern Central America * Mayan languages, language family spoken ...

population to organize and launch a

proletarian The proletariat (; ) is the social class of wage-earners, those members of a society whose only possession of significant economic value is their labour power (their capacity to work). A member of such a class is a proletarian. Marxist philoso ...

revolution against the Mexican

bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie ( , ) is a social class, equivalent to the middle or upper middle class. They are distinguished from, and traditionally contrasted with, the proletariat by their affluence, and their great cultural and financial capital. Th ...

and the federal government.Farewell to the End of History: Organization and Vision in Anti-Corporate Movements
by Naomi Klein, The Socialist Register, 2002, London: Merlin Press, 1–14 After hearing his proposition, the Chiapanecans "just stared at him," and replied that they were not urban workers, and that from their perspective the land was not property, but the heart of the community. In the documentary ''

A Place Called Chiapas ''A Place Called Chiapas'' is a 1998 Canadian documentary film of first-hand accounts of the ''Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional'' (EZLN) the ( Zapatista Army of National Liberation or Zapatistas) and the lives of its soldiers and the pe ...

'' (1998), about his early days there, Subcommander Marcos said: Debate exists as to whether Marcos visited Nicaragua in the years soon following the Sandinista Revolution that took place there in 1979, and, if he did, how many times and in what capacity. He is rumored to have done so, although no official documents (for example, immigration records) have been discovered to attest to this. Nick Henck argues that Guillén "may have journeyed" to Nicaragua, although to him the evidence appears "circumstantial". Fernando Meisenhalter, drawing for the most part on the same evidence, is convinced that at least one trip, for non-military purposes, took place in 1980, and that a second, "very likely" involving "full military training", may also have been undertaken by Marcos "in 1982". Guillén's sister Mercedes Guillén Vicente is the Attorney General of the State of Tamaulipas, and an influential member of the

Institutional Revolutionary Party The Institutional Revolutionary Party ( es, Partido Revolucionario Institucional, ; abbr. PRI) is a political party in Mexico that was founded in 1929 and held uninterrupted power in the country for 71 years, from 1929 to 2000, first as the Nati ...

The Zapatista Uprising

Marcos’s Debut

Marcos made his debut on 1 January 1994, the first day of the 1994 Zapatista uprisings. According to Marcos, his first encounter with the public and the press, occurred by accident, or at least was not premeditated. Initially, his role was to have been to secure the police headquarters in

San Cristóbal de las Casas San Cristóbal de las Casas (), also known by its native Tzotzil name, Jovel (), is a town and municipality located in the Central Highlands region of the Mexican state of Chiapas. It was the capital of the state until 1892, and is still cons ...

. However, with the wounding of a subordinate, whose duty it was to transport the weapons just captured from the police station to the central town square where most of the Zapatista troops were amassed, Marcos took his place and headed there instead. As a group of foreign tourists formed around Marcos, the only English-speaking Zapatista at hand, others, including members of the press, joined the throng. Marcos spent from 8 a.m. until 8 p.m., intermittently interacting with tourists, townsfolk, and reporters, and gave four interviews. From this initial spark, Marcos's fame would spread like wildfire. As Henck notes: "The first three months of 1994...saw the Subcomandante...giving 24 interviews (i.e. an average of two a week); and participating in ten days of peace negotiations with the government, during which he also held nine press conferences reporting on the progress being made..." In the coming months Marcos would be interviewed by Ed Bradley for ''

60 Minutes ''60 Minutes'' is an American television news magazine broadcast on the CBS television network. Debuting in 1968, the program was created by Don Hewitt and Bill Leonard, who chose to set it apart from other news programs by using a unique st ...

'

be featured in '' Vanity Fair (magazine), Vanity Fair'

'.'' He would also devise, convoke and host of the August 1994 National Democratic Convention that brought together 6000 members of civil society to discuss how to organize peaceful struggle that aimed to make Mexico freer, more just and more democratic.

The February 1995 Government military offensive

In early 1995, while the Secretary of Interior Esteban Moctezuma was, in good faith, reaching out to Marcos and the Zapatistas to arrange talks aimed at bringing peace to Chiapas, Mexico's Attorney General's Office ( PGR) learned of the true identity of Subcomandante Marcos from a former-subcommander-turned-traitor Subcomandante Daniel (alias Salvador Morales Garibay). On 9 February 1995, President

Ernesto Zedillo Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León (; born 27 December 1951) is a Mexican economist and politician. He was 61st president of Mexico from 1 December 1994 to 30 November 2000, as the last of the uninterrupted 71-year line of Mexican presidents from t ...

, armed with this recently acquired information, publicly announced that Subcomandante Marcos had been identified as Rafael Sebastián Guillén Vicente, and immediately ordered the Mexican military to go on the offensive and capture or annihilate Marcos and the

Zapatistas Zapatista(s) may refer to: * Liberation Army of the South, formed 1910s, a Mexican insurgent group involved in the Mexican Revolution * Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), formed 1983, a Mexican indigenous armed revolutionary group based ...

. Arrest warrants were issued for Marcos, as well as other key figures in the FLN and EZLN, and Zapatista territory in the Lacandon Jungle was invaded by the

Mexican Army The Mexican Army ( es, Ejército Mexicano) is the combined land and air branch and is the largest part of the Mexican Armed Forces; it is also known as the National Defense Army. The Army is under the authority of the Secretariat of National ...

. This sudden betrayal of both the truce proclaimed by President Carlos Salinas a year previously and the secret peace negotiations currently being undertaken by Secretary of Interior Esteban Moctezuma, provoked responses from several protagonists that, combined, forced Zedillo to promptly call off the military offensive: First, Moctezuma tendered his resignation to Zedillo, who refused it and asked Moctezuma to try to restore conditions that would allow for dialogue and negotiation. Second, civil society rallied to Marcos' and the Zapatistas' defense, organizing three massive demonstrations in Mexico City in one week. One of these rallies was attended by 100,000 people, some of whom chanted "We Are All Marcos" as they marched. Third, Marcos himself capitalized on this sudden, hostile action, issuing some eloquent communiqués in which he lambasted the government's treachery, or at least duplicity, and portrayed himself as self-effacing mock heroic guerrilla. Marcos would later tell an interviewer: "It's after the betrayal of '95 that people remember us: Then the apatistamovement took off". Finally, it prompted

Max Appedole Max García Appedole (born February 10, 1957 in Tampico Tamaulipas, Mexico) is a Mexican entrepreneur and political activist. Appedole is considered an important advocate for the Mexican Government's peaceful solution with the Zapatista Army of ...

, Rafael Guillén's childhood friend and fellow student at the Instituto Cultural Tampico, to approach Edén Pastora, the legendary Nicaraguan "Commander Zero", to help in preparing a report for Under-Secretary of the Interior Luis Maldonado Venegas, Secretary Moctezuma, and President Zedillo, emphasizing Marcos's pacifist disposition and the unintended, detrimental consequences of a military solution to the Zapatista crisis. The document concluded that the complaints of marginalized groups and the radical left in México had been vented through the Zapatistas movement, while Marcos remained open to negotiation. If Marcos were eliminated, his function as a safety-valve for social discontent would cease and more-radical groups could take his place. These groups would respond to violence with violence, threatening terrorist bombings, kidnappings and even more belligerent activities, and so the country would then be plunged into a very dangerous downward spiral, with discontent surfacing in areas other than Chiapas. EZLN_insurgents_in_Mexico

As a result, on 10 March 1995 Zedillo and Moctezuma signed into Chiapas Law the "Presidential Decree for the Dialogue, Reconciliation and Peace with Dignity", which was subsequently debated and approved by the Mexican Congress. Meanwhile, Moctezuma sent Maldonado to enter into direct peace negotiations with the Zapatistas on behalf of the Zedillo government, and these talks took place commencing April 3. By 9 April 1995, the basis for the Dialogue Protocol and the "Harmony, Peace with Justice and Dignity Agreement" negotiated between the Mexican government and the Zapatistas was signed. On 17 April, the Mexican government appointed Marco Antonio Bernal as Peace Commissioner in Chiapas, and peace talks began in San Andrés Larráinzar on 22 April.

The Zapatista Struggle Continues (1994– )

The weeks, months and years that followed the January 1994 Zapatista uprising saw Marcos play an incredibly active role as spokesperson for the Zapatista movement. In doing so, he helped deter the Mexican government from eradicating the Zapatistas militarily by keeping the national and international media’s attention fixed on the movement, and contributed to building bridges and forging solidarity with activist individuals and groups in Mexico and beyond. The following is a list of events (in chronological order) that were either convened by the Zapatistas, and initiated, organized, orchestrated, or presided over by Marcos, or at which he played a major role; or events put on by other organizations at which Marcos acted as representative of, or spokesperson for, the

(

EZLN The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (, EZLN), often referred to as the Zapatistas (Mexican ), is a far-left political and militant group that controls a substantial amount of territory in Chiapas, the southernmost state of Mexico. Sinc ...

): *

Peace Talks A peace process is the set of sociopolitical negotiations, agreements and actions that aim to solve a specific armed conflict. Definitions Prior to an armed conflict occurring, peace processes can include the prevention of an intra-state or in ...

(March 1994) * National Democratic Convention (August 199

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2634183] * The First National Indigenous Forum (January 199

http://www.sipaz.org/1996-2/?lang=en] * Meetings with

Oliver Stone William Oliver Stone (born September 15, 1946) is an American film director, producer, and screenwriter. Stone won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay as writer of '' Midnight Express'' (1978), and wrote the gangster film remake '' Sc ...

Danielle Mitterrand Danielle Émilienne Isabelle Mitterrand (née Gouze; 29 October 1924 – 22 November 2011) was the wife of French President François Mitterrand, and president of the foundation France Libertés Fondation Danielle Mitterrand.Régis Debray Jules Régis Debray (; born 2 September 1940) is a French philosopher, journalist, former government official and academic. He is known for his theorization of mediology, a critical theory of the long-term transmission of cultural meaning in ...

(April / May 199

* The Intercontinental Encuentro For Humanity and Against Neoliberalism (July / August 199

https://www.nadir.org/nadir/initiativ/agp/chiapas1996/en/voice7.html] * The Zapatistas’ Second Encuentro with Civil Society (May 199

http://www.cedoz.org/site/content.php?doc=119&cat=46] * The March of the Color of the Earth / The March for Indian Dignity (February / March 200

*

(January—December 2006) * Spanish Television (TVE) interview with Marcos by Jesús Quintero (June 200

* The First Encounter between the Zapatistas and the Peoples of the World (January 200

* The 12th Hispano-American Meeting of Writers "Hours of June" at Sonora University (June 200

* The "Ethics and Politics" Conference at the UNAM (June 200

* The National Forum Against Repression in Mexico City (June 200

* The Second Encounter between the Zapatistas and the Peoples of the World (July 200

* The "Latin America as seen from the Other Campaign" Round Table at the National School of Anthropology and History (July 200

* The "Confronting Capitalist Dispossession: The Defense of Land and Territory" The Press Club (July 200

* A Round Table at the University of the Earth in San Cristóbal (July 200

* The Encuentro of the Indigenous Peoples of America held in Sonora (October 200

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2007/10/16/palabras-del-evento-de-clausura-del-encuentro-de-pueblos-indigenas-de-america-14-de-octubre/] * The First International Colloquium in Memory of Andrés Aubry: Planet Earth, Anti-systemic Movements (December 2007) * The National and International Caravan for Observation and Solidarity with Zapatista Communities (August 2008) * The Global Festival of Dignified Rage (January 2009) * The Celebration in Homage to Compañeros Luis Villoro Toranzo and Zapatista Teacher Galeano (May 201

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2015/04/30/program-and-other-information-about-the-homage-and-the-seminar

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2015/05/11/luis-the-zapatista/] * The Seminar on Critical Thought in the Face of the Capitalist Hydra (May 201

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2015/06/19/the-method-the-bibliography-and-a-drone-deep-in-the-mountains-of-the-mexican-southeast

* The ConSciences for Humanity (December 2016 – January 201

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2017/01/17/a-few-first-questions-for-the-sciences-and-their-consciences

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2017/01/23/the-arts-and-the-sciences-in-the-history-of-neozapatismo

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2017/02/03/zapatista-alchemy

* The "Walls of Capital, the Cracks of the Left" Seminar (April 201

https://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2017/02/16/the-walls-above-the-cracks-below-and-to-the-left

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2017/04/26/kagemusha-april-is-also-tomorrow-subcomandante-insurgente-galeano

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2017/04/24/prelude-timepieces-the-apocalypse-and-the-hour-of-the-smallsubcomandante-insurgente-galeano/] * ConSciences for Humanity Festival (December 201

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2017/12/27/participacion-de-la-comision-sexta-del-dia-27-de-diciembre-de-2017-en-el-conciencias-por-la-humanidad-supgaleano-depende

* "To Watch, to Listen, to Speak: No Thinking Allowed?" Round Table Discussion (April 201

http://enlacezapatista.ezln.org.mx/2018/04/03/programa-del-concierto-musiquero-del-domingo-15-de-abril

* The First "Puy ta Cuxlejaltic" Film Festival (November 201

https://verne.elpais.com/verne/2018/11/06/mexico/1541481003_005853.html] * The Second "Puy ta Cuxlejaltic" Film Festival (December 201

https://suracapulco.mx/impreso/espectaculos/se-encuentran-diego-luna-y-el-subcomandante-galeano/]

Political and philosophical writings

Marcos's communiqués, in which he outlines his political and philosophical views, number in the hundreds. These writings, as well as his essays, stories and interviews, have been translated into numerous languages and published in dozens of edited collections and other compilations. Of Marcos's writings, Jorge Alonso claims, "With over 10,000 citations, he has also made a dent in the academic world. Marcos’ writings, as well as books based on him, have been referenced by a large number of researchers from different countries and in several languages." Much has been written about Marcos's literary style, in particular its poetic nature and his use of humor, especially irony. He generally appears to prefer indirect expression, and his writings often take the form of

fable Fable is a literary genre: a succinct fictional story, in prose or verse, that features animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that are anthropomorphized, and that illustrates or leads to a particular m ...

s or allegorical children's stories, though some are more earthy and direct. In a January 2003 letter to Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (the Basque ETA separatist group) titled "I Shit on All the Revolutionary Vanguards of This Planet", Marcos wrote, "We teach hildren of the EZLNthat there are as many words as colors and that there are so many thoughts because within them is the world where words are born...And we teach them to speak with the truth, that is to say, to speak with their hearts." '' La Historia de los Colores'' (''The Story of Colors'') is on the surface a children's story, and is one of Marcos's most-read books. Based on a

creation myth A creation myth (or cosmogonic myth) is a symbolic narrative of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it., "Creation myths are symbolic stories describing how the universe and its inhabitants came to be. Creation myths develo ...

, it teaches tolerance and respect for diversity. The book's English translation was to be published with support from the U.S.

National Endowment for the Arts The National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that offers support and funding for projects exhibiting artistic excellence. It was created in 1965 as an independent agency of the federal ...

, but in 1999 the grant was abruptly canceled after a reporter brought the book's content and authorship to NEA chairman William J. Ivey's attention. The

Lannan Foundation The Lannan Literary Awards are a series of awards and literary fellowships given out in various fields by the Lannan Foundation. Established in 1989, the awards are meant "to honor both established and emerging writers whose work is of exceptional ...

stepped in and provided support after the NEA withdrew. In 2005, Marcos wrote the

detective story Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—whether professional, amateur or retired—investigates a crime, often murder. The detective genre began around the same time as specu ...

'' The Uncomfortable Dead'' with the

whodunit A ''whodunit'' or ''whodunnit'' (a colloquial elision of "Who asdone it?") is a complex plot-driven variety of detective fiction in which the puzzle regarding who committed the crime is the main focus. The reader or viewer is provided with the c ...

writer

Paco Ignacio Taibo II Paco Ignacio Taibo II (born Francisco Ignacio Taibo Mahojo; on January 11, 1949), also known as Paco Taibo II or informally as PIT is a Spanish-Mexican writer, novelist and political activist based in Mexico City. He is most widely known as the ...

. This

crime novel Crime fiction, detective story, murder mystery, mystery novel, and police novel are terms used to describe narratives that centre on criminal acts and especially on the investigation, either by an amateur or a professional detective, of a crime, ...

bears "a pro-ecology, pro-democracy, anti-discriminatory (racial, gender, and sexual orientation), anti-neoliberal globalization, and anti-capitalist" message. Some of Marcos's works that best articulate his political philosophy include "The Fourth World War Has Begun" (1997), alternatively titled "Seven Loose Pieces of The Global Jigsaw Puzzl

"The Fourth World War" (199

The

Sixth Declaration of the Lacandon Jungle The Sixth Declaration of the Lacandon Jungle (Spanish: ''Sexta Declaración de la Selva Lacandona'') was a manifesto issued by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (''Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional'', EZLN) on June 28, 2005, decl ...

(2005); the four-part "Zapatistas and the Other: The Pedestrians of History" (2006); and Marcos's presentations in
Critical Thought in the Face of the Capitalist Hydra
' and

'. Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, Flag

Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, Flag

Marcos's literary output serves a political purpose, and even performs a combative function, as suggested in a 2002 book titled '' Our Word is Our Weapon'', a compilation of his articles, poems, speeches, and letters.

Fourth World War

Marcos has written an essay in which he claims that

neoliberalism Neoliberalism (also neo-liberalism) is a term used to signify the late 20th century political reappearance of 19th-century ideas associated with free-market capitalism after it fell into decline following the Second World War. A prominent f ...

and

constitute the "Fourth World War".The Fourth World War Has Begun
by Subcomandante Marcos, trans. Nathalie de Broglio, Neplantla: Views from South, Duke University Press: 2001, Vol. 2 Issue 3: 559–572 He termed the

Cold War The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because t ...

the "Third World War". In this piece, Marcos compares and contrasts the Third World War (the Cold War) with the Fourth World War, which he says is the new type of war we find ourselves in now: "If the Third World War saw the confrontation of capitalism and socialism on various terrains and with varying degrees of intensity, the fourth will be played out between large financial centers, on a global scale, and at a tremendous and constant intensity." He goes on to claim that

economic globalization Economic globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, with the two others being political globalization and cultural globalization, as well as the general term of globalization. Econo ...

has caused devastation through financial policies:

Toward the end of the
Cold War The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because t ...
, capitalism created a military horror: the neutron bomb, a weapon that destroys life while leaving buildings intact. During the Fourth World War, however, a new wonder has been discovered: the financial bomb. Unlike those dropped on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki The United States detonated two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945, respectively. The two bombings killed between 129,000 and 226,000 people, most of whom were civilians, and remain the on ...
, this new bomb not only destroys the
polis ''Polis'' (, ; grc-gre, πόλις, ), plural ''poleis'' (, , ), literally means "city" in Greek. In Ancient Greece, it originally referred to an administrative and religious city center, as distinct from the rest of the city. Later, it also ...
(here, the nation), imposing death, terror, and misery on those who live there, but also transforms its target into just another piece in the puzzle of economic globalization.

Marcos explains the effect of the financial bombs as "destroying the material bases of their ation-state'ssovereignty and, in producing their qualitative depopulation, excluding all those deemed unsuitable to the new economy (for example, indigenous peoples)". He also believes that

and globalization result in a loss of unique culture for societies as a result of the homogenizing effect of neo-liberal globalization:

All cultures forged by nations – the noble indigenous past of America, the brilliant civilization of Europe, the wise history of Asian nations, and the ancestral wealth of Africa and Oceania – are corroded by the American way of life. In this way,
neoliberalism Neoliberalism (also neo-liberalism) is a term used to signify the late 20th century political reappearance of 19th-century ideas associated with free-market capitalism after it fell into decline following the Second World War. A prominent f ...
imposes the destruction of nations and groups of nations in order to reconstruct them according to a single model. This is a planetary war, of the worst and cruelest kind, waged against humanity.

It is in this context that Marcos believes that the EZLN and other indigenous movements across the world are fighting back. He sees the EZLN as one of many "pockets of resistance".

It is not only in the mountains of southeastern Mexico that
neoliberalism Neoliberalism (also neo-liberalism) is a term used to signify the late 20th century political reappearance of 19th-century ideas associated with free-market capitalism after it fell into decline following the Second World War. A prominent f ...
is being resisted. In other regions of Mexico, in Latin America, in the United States and in Canada, in the Europe of the
Maastricht Treaty The Treaty on European Union, commonly known as the Maastricht Treaty, is the foundation treaty of the European Union (EU). Concluded in 1992 between the then-twelve member states of the European Communities, it announced "a new stage in the ...
, in Africa, in Asia, and in Oceania, pockets of resistance are multiplying. Each has its own history, its specificities, its similarities, its demands, its struggles, its successes. If humanity wants to survive and improve, its only hope resides in these pockets made up of the excluded, the left-for-dead, the 'disposable'.

Latin America's Pink Tide and being a Revolutionary vs being a Rebel

Marcos's views on Latin American leaders who formed the continent's

Pink Tide The pink tide ( es, marea rosa, pt, onda rosa, french: marée rose), or the turn to the left ( es, giro a la izquierda, link=no, pt, volta à esquerda, link=no, french: tournant à gauche, link=no), is a political wave and perception of a tur ...

are complex. For example, in interviews he gave in 2007 he signaled his approval of Bolivian president

Evo Morales Juan Evo Morales Ayma (; born 26 October 1959) is a Bolivian politician, trade union organizer, and former cocalero activist who served as the 65th president of Bolivia from 2006 to 2019. Widely regarded as the country's first president to c ...

, but expressed mixed feelings toward Hugo Chavez of

Venezuela Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...

, whom he labels "disconcerting" and views as too militant, but nonetheless responsible for vast revolutionary changes in Venezuela. He also called Brazil's former president

Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (; born Luiz Inácio da Silva; 27 October 1945), known mononymously as Lula, is a Brazilian politician, trade unionist, and former metalworker who is the president-elect of Brazil. A member of the Workers' Party ...

and

Nicaragua Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Managua is the coun ...

's current president

Daniel Ortega José Daniel Ortega Saavedra (; born 11 November 1945) is a Nicaraguan revolutionary and politician serving as President of Nicaragua since 2007. Previously he was leader of Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990, first as coordinator of the Junta of Na ...

, whom he once served under while a member of the Sandinistas, traitors who have betrayed their original ideals. In another interview, given to Jesús Quintero the previous year, however, when asked what he thought about the "pre-revolutionary situation" then existing in Latin America, and specifically about "Evo Morales. Hugo Chavez, Fidel Castro, etcetera", Marcos replied:

We are interested in those of below, not in the governments, nor in Chavez, nor in
Kirchner Kirchner, a surname of German origin, from the Middle High German word, 'kirchenaere' (English: ' sexton'). Kirchner originated as an occupational surname for a church worker, such as a priest, church assistant or a church property administrator. N ...
, nor in Tabaré, nor in Evo, nor in Castro. We are interested in the processes which are taking place among the people, among the peoples of Latin America, and especially, out of natural sympathy, we are interested when these movements are led by Indian peoples, as is the case in
Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
and in
Ecuador Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ' ...
…We say: “Governments come and go, the people remain”… Chavez will last for a time, Evo Morales will last for a time, Castro will last for a time, but the peoples, the Cuban people, the Bolivian people, the Argentine, the Uruguayan, will go on for a much longer time…

This emphasis on bottom-up (as opposed to top-down) politics, and concentrating on the people over leaders, even leftwing or revolutionary ones, connects with Marcos's stance on revolution and revolutionaries. In the interview with

Quintero Quintero is a Chilean city and commune in Valparaíso Province, in the Valparaíso Region, 30 kilometers north of Valparaíso. The commune spans an area of . It was the first port in the country, created during the expedition of Diego de Alm ...

mentioned above, when asked "...what does it mean to be revolutionary today?", Marcos responded:

The problem with being revolutionary is that the taking of power must be considered and one must think that things can be transformed from above. We do not think that: we think that society, and the world, should be transformed from below. We think we also have to transform ourselves: in our personal relations, in culture, in art, in communication…and create another kind of society…

Ultimately, this has led Marcos to reject the label "revolutionary", preferring instead to self-identify as a "rebel", because

“…a revolutionary proposes fundamentally to transform things from above, not from below, the opposite to a social rebel. The revolutionary appears: We are going to form a movement, I will take power and from above will transform things. But not so the social rebel. The social rebel organizes the masses and from below, transforming things without the question of the seizure of power having to be raised.

Elsewhere, in a communiqué, Marcos elaborates on what distinguishes a revolutionary from a rebel, noting how the revolutionary

...throws off whomever is sitting on the chair f powerwith one shot, sits down and … ere he remains until another Revolutionary … comes by, throws him off and history … repeats itself… he rebel...on the other hand...runs into the Seat of Power…, looks at it carefully, analyzes it, but instead of sitting there he goes and gets a fingernail file and, with heroic patience, he begins sawing at the legs until they are so fragile that they break when someone sits down, which happens almost immediately.

Despite his preference for rebels over revolutionaries however, Marcos has nevertheless expressed admiration for both

Fidel Castro Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (; ; 13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and president from 1976 to 20 ...

and

Popularity

Marcos's popularity was at its height during the first seven years of the Zapatista uprising, A

cult of personality A cult of personality, or a cult of the leader, Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) ''Populism: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 63. is the result of an effort which is made to create an id ...

developed around the Subcomandante based on the romantic premise of a rebel confronting the powerful in defense of society's underdogs, and an accompanying copious press coverage, sometimes called "Marcos-mania". As a guest on ''

'' in March 1994, Marcos was depicted as a contemporary

Robin Hood Robin Hood is a legendary heroic outlaw originally depicted in English folklore and subsequently featured in literature and film. According to legend, he was a highly skilled archer and swordsman. In some versions of the legend, he is dep ...

That initial period, 1994''–''2001, saw reporters from all over the world coming to interview Marcos and do features on him. He was also courted by numerous famous figures and literati (e.g.

Naomi Klein Naomi A. Klein (born May 8, 1970) is a Canadian author, social activist, and filmmaker known for her political analyses, support of ecofeminism, organized labour, left-wing politics and criticism of corporate globalization, fascism, ecofascism ...

Danielle Mitterrand Danielle Émilienne Isabelle Mitterrand (née Gouze; 29 October 1924 – 22 November 2011) was the wife of French President François Mitterrand, and president of the foundation France Libertés Fondation Danielle Mitterrand.Manuel Vázquez Montalbán Manuel Vázquez Montalbán (14 June 1939–18 October 2003) was a prolific Spanish writer from Catalonia: journalist, novelist, poet, essayist, anthologue, prologist, humorist, critic and political prisoner as well as a gastronome and a F ...

, Juan Gelman,

José Saramago José de Sousa Saramago, GColSE ComSE GColCa (; 16 November 1922 – 18 June 2010), was a Portuguese writer and recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature for his "parables sustained by imagination, compassion and irony ith which hecon ...

), and engaged in exchanges of letters with eminent intellectuals and writers (e.g. John Berger, Carlos Fuentes,

Eduardo Galeano Eduardo Hughes Galeano (; 3 September 1940 – 13 April 2015) was a Uruguayan journalist, writer and novelist considered, among other things, "global soccer's pre-eminent man of letters" and "a literary giant of the Latin American left". Galea ...

). Zapatista events Marcos presided over were attended by people from all over the world by the thousands, including media organizations, and he appeared on the front pages of innumerable magazines, and on the covers of many books and DVDs. When, in February 1995, the Mexican government revealed Marcos's true identity and issued an arrest warrant for him, thousands marched through the streets of Mexico City chanting "We are all Marcos." The following year (1996), saw a surge in the Subcommander's popularity and exposure in the media. He was visited by

Danielle Mitterrand Danielle Émilienne Isabelle Mitterrand (née Gouze; 29 October 1924 – 22 November 2011) was the wife of French President François Mitterrand, and president of the foundation France Libertés Fondation Danielle Mitterrand.Régis Debray

and he acted as host at the Intercontinental Encuentro For Humanity and Against Neoliberalism, which drew around 5,000 participants from 50 countries, including documentary makers, academics and reporters, some of whom published the interviews that Marcos granted them on the event's sidelines. The Subcommander also proved popular with certain musicians and bands. For example,

Rage Against the Machine Rage Against the Machine (often abbreviated as RATM or shortened to simply Rage) is an American rock band from Los Angeles, California. Formed in 1991, the group consists of vocalist Zack de la Rocha, bassist and backing vocalist Tim Commer ...

, the Mexican rock band Tijuana No!, Mexican singer-songwriter

Óscar Chávez Óscar Chávez (20 March 1935 – 30 April 2020) was a Mexican singer, songwriter and actor. He was the major proponent of the Nueva Trova movement in Mexico in the 1960s and 1970s. Career and education Chavez studied theatre at the National A ...

and French Basque singer-songwriter Manu Chao expressed their support for Marcos, and in some cases incorporated recordings of his speeches into their songs or concerts. His face appears on the cover of

Thievery Corporation Thievery Corporation is an American electronic music duo consisting of Rob Garza and Eric Hilton. Their musical style mixes elements of dub, acid jazz, reggae, Indian classical, Middle Eastern music, hip hop and Brazilian music, including ...

's album, Radio Retaliation. Marcos experienced a general uptick in popularity in 2006 when he toured Mexico on the Other Campaign. On this trek to the capital he was welcomed by "huge adoring crowds, chanting and whistling", while "Marcos handcrafted dolls, and his ski mask-clad face adorns T-shirts, posters and badges."BBC Profile: The Zapatistas' mysterious leader
by Nathalie Malinarich, 11 March 2001 By 2011, Mexican historian

Enrique Krauze Enrique Krauze ( Mexico City, September 16, 1947) is a Mexican historian, essayist, editor, and entrepreneur. He has written more than twenty books, some of which are: ''Mexico: Biography of Power'', ''Redeemers'', and ''El pueblo soy yo'' (''I ...

wrote that "Marcos asremained popular among young Mexicans, but as a celebrity, not as a role model". In May 2014, Marcos gave a speech in front of several thousand onlookers as well as independent media organizations in which, among other things, he explained that because back in 1994 "those outside he movementdid not see us…the character named 'Marcos' started to be constructed", but that there came a point when "Marcos went from being a spokesperson to being a distractor", and so, convinced that "Marcos, the character, was no longer necessary", the Zapatistas chose to "destroy it". Marcos has been compared to popular figures such as England's folklore hero

, Mexican revolutionary

Emiliano Zapata Emiliano Zapata Salazar (; August 8, 1879 – April 10, 1919) was a Mexican revolutionary. He was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution of 1910–1920, the main leader of the people's revolution in the Mexican state of Morelos, and the ins ...

, Argentine guerrilla

, India's pacifist independence leader

Mahatma Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...

, South African anti-apartheid icon

Nelson Mandela Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (; ; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid activist who served as the first president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the ...

, and even U.S. president John F. Kennedy in the 1960s, on account of his "popularity in virtually all sectors of Mexican society." Marcos is often credited with putting Mexico's indigenous population's poverty in the spotlight, both locally and internationally. His popularity also served the Zapatista cause well in two very concrete ways. Most immediately, it deprived the Mexican government of the option of militarily crushing them. Second, Marcos was able to capitalize on his popularity to win public support, garner international solidarity, and attract media attention to the Zapatistas. Marcos has continued to attract media attention, and to be seen both in the company of celebrities and as a celebrity himself. For example, he was photographed alongside Mexican actors Gael García Bernal and

Ilse Salas Ilse Salas (born 26 August 1981) is a Mexican actress. She appeared in more than fifteen films since 2010. For her lead role in the films ''Güeros'' and '' The Good Girls'' Salas received two nominations for the Ariel Award for Best Actress T ...

in November 2018, and Diego Luna in December 2019.

Relationship with Inter Milan

Apart from cheering for local

Liga MX The Liga MX, officially known as the Liga BBVA MX for sponsorship reasons, is the top professional football division in Mexico, holding 2 tournaments per year. The league is considered the strongest in North America, and among the strongest in a ...

side Chiapas F.C., which relocated to

Querétaro Querétaro (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Querétaro ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Querétaro, links=no; Otomi: ''Hyodi Ndämxei''), is one of the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 18 municipalities. Its cap ...

in 2013, Subcomandante Marcos and the EZLN also support the Italian

Serie A The Serie A (), also called Serie A TIM for national sponsorship with TIM, is a professional league competition for football clubs located at the top of the Italian football league system and the winner is awarded the Scudetto and the Cop ...

football club

Inter Milan Football Club Internazionale Milano, commonly referred to as Internazionale () or simply Inter, and colloquially known as Inter Milan in English-speaking countries, is an Italian professional football club based in Milan, Lombardy. Inter i ...

. The contact between EZLN and Inter, one of Italy's biggest and most famous clubs, began in 2004 when an EZLN commander contacted a delegate from Inter Campus, the club's charity organization which has funded sports, water, and health projects in Chiapas. In 2005, Inter's president Massimo Moratti received an invitation from Subcomandante Marcos to have Inter play a football game against a team of Zapatistas with

Diego Maradona Diego Armando Maradona (; 30 October 196025 November 2020) was an Argentine professional football player and manager. Widely regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of the sport, he was one of the two joint winners of the F ...

as referee. Subcomandante Marcos asked Inter to bring the match ball because the Zapatistas' ones were punctured. Although the proposed spectacle never came to fruition, there has been continuing contact between Inter and the Zapatistas. Former captain

Javier Zanetti Javier Adelmar Zanetti (; born 10 August 1973) is an Argentine former professional footballer. He is regarded as one of the best players of his generation, and is especially well known for his role in Inter Milan's treble-winning 2009–10 seas ...

has expressed sympathy for the Zapatista cause.

Notes and references

Interviews with Marcos

* Appel, Kerry. "Interview with Subcommander Marcos of the EZLN." January 1997: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3pHmHbqqTk * Autonomedia. "Testimonies of the First Day." (January 1994). In its ''¡Zapatistas! Documents of the New Mexican Revolution'', 62–69. New York: Autonomedia, 1994: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/Zapatistas/chapter01.html * Autonomedia. "Early Reports." (January 1994). In its ''¡Zapatistas! Documents of the New Mexican Revolution'', 71–75. New York: Autonomedia, 1994: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/Zapatistas/chapter02.html * Autonomedia. "Interview with Subcommander Marcos." (February 1994). In its ''¡Zapatistas! Documents of the New Mexican Revolution'', 141–166. New York: Autonomedia, 1994: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/Zapatistas/chapter05.html * Autonomedia. "Interview with Marcos Before the Dialogue." (February 1994). In its ''¡Zapatistas! Documents of the New Mexican Revolution'', 196–210. New York: Autonomedia, 1994: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/Zapatistas/chapter07.html * Autonomedia. "A Conversation with Subcommander Marcos After the Dialogue." (March 1994). In its ''¡Zapatistas! Documents of the New Mexican Revolution'', 247–253. New York: Autonomedia, 1994: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/Zapatistas/chapter09.html * Autonomedia. "Interview with Marcos." (April 1994). In its ''¡Zapatistas! Documents of the New Mexican Revolution'', 264–267. New York: Autonomedia, 1994: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/Zapatistas/chapter10.html * Autonomedia. "Interview with Subcommander Marcos." (May 1994). In its ''¡Zapatistas! Documents of the New Mexican Revolution'', 289–309. New York: Autonomedia, 1994: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/Zapatistas/chapter11.html * Bardach, Ann Louise. "Mexico’s Poet Rebel: Subcomandante Marcos and Mexico in Chaos." ''Vanity Fair'' 57 (July, 1994): 68–74 and 130–135
http://bardachreports.com/articles/v_19940700.html
* Benjamin, Medea. "Interview: Subcomandante Marcos." In ''First World, ha ha ha!'', edited by Elaine Katzenberger, 57–70. San Francisco: City Lights Publishers, 1995. * Blixen, Samuel, and Carlos Fazio. "Interview with Marcos about Neoliberalism, the National State and Democracy." Struggle Archive: http://struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/inter_marcos_aut95.html * Bradley, Ed. "Subcomandante Marcos, CBS News ''60 Minutes''." March 1994: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0-rPLK5JpA * Calónico, Cristián. ''Marcos: palabras y historia / Word and History''. DVD. Mexico City: Producciones Marca Diablo, 1996. * de Huerta, Marta Duran, and Nicholas Higgins. "An interview with Subcomandante Insurgente Marcos, Spokesperson and Military Commander of the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN)." ''International Affairs'' 75, no. 2 (1999): 269–279. * El Kilombo, ''Beyond Resistance: Everything: An Interview with Subcomandante Insurgente Marcos''. Durham: Paperboat Press, 2007: http://www.elkilombo.org/wp-content/uploads/beyondresistance-8.5x11.pdf * García Márquez, Gabriel, and Roberto Pombo. "The Punch Card and the Hour Glass: Interview with Subcomandante Marcos." ''New Left Review'' 9 (2001): 69–79: https://newleftreview.org/issues/II9/articles/subcomandante-marcos-the-punch-card-and-the-hourglass * Landau, Saul. "In the Jungle with Marcos." (Interview). ''The Progressive'', March 1996: https://www.thefreelibrary.com/In+the+jungle+with+Marcos.-a018049702 * Lupis, Marco. "Subcomandante Marcos: ''We shall overcome! (Eventually).”'' In his ''Interviews from the Short Century'', 21–28. Montefranco: Tektime, 2018. * McCaughan, Michael. "An Interview with Subcomandante Marcos." ''NACLA Report on the Americas'' 28, no. 1 (1995): 35–37. * Monsiváis, Carlos, and Hermann Bellinghausen. "Marcos Interview." Struggle Archive. 8 January 2001: http://www.struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/2001/marcos_interview_jan.html * Ovetz, Robert. "Interview with EZLN Sub-Comandante Marcos." 1 January 1994: http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/mexico/sp000645.txt * Rage Against the Machine. "Interview with Marcos (from The Battle Of Mexico City)." January 1997: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5WekxAV9-0 * Ramos, Jorge. "Dilemmas of a Masked Guerrilla: Subcomandante Marcos." In his ''Take A Stand: Lessons from'' Rebels, 143–151. New York: Penguin, 2016. * Rodríguez Lascano, Sergio. "The Extra Element: Organization: An Exclusive Interview with Zapatista Subcomandante Marcos: Part I." ''Rebeldía'', 30 May 2006: http://www.narconews.com/Issue41/article1856.html * Rodríguez Lascano, Sergio. "A Message for the Intellectuals and their "Magnificent Alibi to Avoid Struggle and Confrontation: An Exclusive Interview with Zapatista Subcomandante Marcos: Part II." ''Rebeldía'', 31 May 2006: http://www.narconews.com/Issue41/article1857.html * Rodríguez Lascano, Sergio. "A Different Path for Latin America Rides through Mexico: An Exclusive Interview with Zapatista Subcomandante Marcos: Part III." ''Rebeldía'', 31 May 2006: http://www.narconews.com/Issue41/article1861.html * Rodríguez Lascano, Sergio. "If You Listen, Mexico 2006 Seems a lot Like Chiapas in 1992: An Exclusive Interview with Zapatista Subcomandante Marcos: Part IV." ''Rebeldía'', 1 June 2006: http://www.narconews.com/Issue41/article1865.html * Simon, Joel. "The Marcos Mystery: A Chat with the Subcommander of Spin." In ''The Zapatista Reader'', edited by Tom Hayden, 45–47. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 2002. * Subcomandante Marcos. "First Interviews with Marcos." Struggle Archive. 1 January 1994: http://www.struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/marcos_interview_jan94.html * Subcomandante Marcos. "Subcomandante Marcos: On Armed Struggle." In ''Voice of Fire'' (revised edition), eds. Ben Clarke and Clifton Ross, 64–45. San Francisco, CA: Freedom Voices, 1994 000 * Subcomandante Marcos. "Subcomandante Marcos: On Origins." In ''Voice of Fire'' (revised edition), eds. Ben Clarke and Clifton Ross, 41–47. San Francisco, CA: Freedom Voices, 1994 000 * Subcomandante Marcos. "Interview with Subcomandante Marcos." Struggle Archive. 11 May 1994: http://www.struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/marcos_interview_jan94.html * Subcomandante Marcos. "December 1994 Interview with Marcos." Struggle Archive. 9 December 1994: http://www.struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/inter_marcos_dec94.html * Subcomandante Marcos. "Interview with Marcos." Struggle Archive. 25 August 1995: http://www.struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/inter_marcos_consult_aug95.html * Subcomandante Marcos. "Never Again A Mexico Without Us." Struggle Archive. 25 November 1997: http://www.struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/1997/marcos_inter_cni_feb.html * Subcomandante Marcos. "15 Years Since the Formation of the EZLN." Struggle Archive. 16 November 1998: http://www.struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/1998/inter_marcos_nov98.html * Subcomandante Marcos. "Bonus Feature: Interview". ''Zapatista''. DVD (New York: Big Noise Films, 1998): Part 1 @ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDLssf72C3Y; Part 2 @ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcWolB5nIcc; and Part 3 @ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PMRyPnQGRks * Subcomandante Marcos. "Bellinghausen Interviews Marcos about Consulta." Struggle Archive. 10 and 11 March 1999: http://struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/1999/inter_marcos_consul_mar.html * Subcomandante Marcos. "Marcos on Peace, 3 Conditions and Globalisation." Struggle Archive. 28 January 2001: http://struggle.ws/mexico/ezln/1999/inter_marcos_consul_mar.html * Subcomandante Marcos. ''Zapatistas: Crónica de una Rebelión'' (English Subtitles). DVD. Canalseisdejulio, 2003: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6j7e1uK5cQ * Subcomandante Marcos. "A Time to Ask, a Time to Demand, and a Time to Act." In ''The Fire and The Word: A History of the Zapatista Movement'', ed. Gloria Muñoz Ramírez, 278–314. San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books, 2008 * Subcomandante Marcos/Galeano. ''1994''. Netflix (limited series), 2019. Episode 2 "Revolution" @ 2:15–2:36, 5:20–5:38, 5:51–6:51, 11:20–12:20, 14:05–14:25, 17:12–17:38, & 26:27–26:54; Episode 4 "Eagle Knight" @ 0:43–1:08, & 43:28–43:42; Episode 5 "Round Earth" @ 11:12–11:31, 12:19–12:33, 14:11–14:32, 16:05–16:20, 16:42–16:51, & 17:35–17:41. * Wild, Nettie. "Subcomandante Marcos interview from A place called Chiapas." ''A Place Called Chiapas: A Film''. DVD (New York: Zeitgeist Films, 1998): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iDULdQtX0u0

External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Marcos, Subcomandante 1957 births Living people 1995 in Mexico Anarcho-communists Indigenous rights activists Libertarian socialists Members of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation Mexican agrarianists Mexican anarchists Mexican political writers Mexican rebels Mexican revolutionaries National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni People from Tampico, Tamaulipas Revolution theorists