The Sri Lanka montane rain forests is an
ecoregion
An ecoregion (ecological region) or ecozone (ecological zone) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than a biogeographic realm. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of ...
found above 1,000 m in the central highlands of
Sri Lanka. Owing to their rich
biodiversity
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...
, this region is considered to be a
super-hotspot within
endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found else ...
hotspots of global importance.
These forests are cooler than
lowland forests and therefore they have ideal conditions for growth of
cloud forests. These
forests classifications tropical sub montane forest, tropical sub-montane and tropical upper montane.
Half of Sri Lanka's endemic flowering plants and 51 percent of the endemic
vertebrate
Vertebrates () comprise all animal taxa within the subphylum Vertebrata () (chordates with backbones), including all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with c ...
s are restricted to these forests. More than 34 percent of Sri Lanka's endemic trees, shrubs, and herbs can only be found in this ecoregion. Twisted, stunted trees are a common sight in these forests, together with many varieties of
orchids
Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae (), a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant.
Along with the Asteraceae, they are one of the two largest families of flowering ...
,
mosses and
fern
A fern (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta ) is a member of a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. The polypodiophytes include all living pteridophytes exce ...
s.
The trees of montane rain forests grow to a height 10–15 meters, shorter than the lowland rain forest trees.
These high altitude forests are the
catchment area
In human geography, a catchment area is the area from which a location, such as a city, service or institution, attracts a population that uses its services and economic opportunities. Catchment areas may be defined based on from where people are ...
for most of Sri Lanka's major rivers.
Forest cover
Sri Lanka's montane forests are located above 1,220 m.
The montane rain forests cover 3,099.5 ha in total, or 0.05 percent of Sri Lanka's total area. These forests are found in the mountain tops, such as
Pidurutalagala
Pidurutalagala ( si, පිදුරුතලාගල, pronounced , ''Straw Plateau Rock''), or Mount Pedro in English, is an ultra prominent peak and the tallest mountain in Sri Lanka, at . It is situated North-North-East from the town of Nuwa ...
,
Kikilimana, Meepilimana, Agrabopaththalawa,
Adam's Peak
Adam's Peak is a tall conical mountain located in central Sri Lanka. It is well known for the Sri Pada ( si, ශ්රී පාද), i.e., "sacred footprint", a rock formation near the summit, which in Buddhist tradition is held to be ...
and
Hakgala
Hakgala is a mountain situated in the Nuwara Eliya district of Sri Lanka at above mean sea level, most parts of the mountain are covered with forest belonging to Hakgala Strict Nature Reserve. Hakgala Botanical Garden is situated on the northea ...
. In lower elevations, at altitudes ranging 1,000–1,500 m, submontane forests occur; those forests account for 1.04 percent of the nation's area, totalling 65,793.3 ha.
Geological history
Sri Lanka detached from the Deccan peninsula during the end of the
Miocene
The Miocene ( ) is the first epoch (geology), geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and mea ...
epoch, but its origin lies within
Gondwanaland.
According to
biogeographic
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, ...
patterns southwestern lowland wet forests became isolated from the nearest wet forests in the mainland soon after the separation when climatic changes created drier, warmer conditions in the lowland. Although the two lands bridged in the
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene ( , often referred to as the ''Ice age'') is the geological epoch that lasted from about 2,580,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was finally confirmed in ...
subsequently, intervening dry habitat prevented the exchange of wet climate adapted species with wet forests in India. This resulted in southwestern species to evolve and specialize separately, giving rise higher to the higher level of endemism that can be seen today.
Features
Some of the mountain peaks of the central highlands reach above 2500 m, although the average height is 1800 m.
Knuckles rises to 1800 m, with an average elevation of 1500 m. Because of the elevation, ambient temperature is
cooler
A cooler, portable ice chest, ice box, cool box, chilly bin (in New Zealand), or esky ( Australia) is an insulated box used to keep food or drink cool.
Ice cubes are most commonly placed in it to help the contents inside stay cool. Ice packs a ...
than in the lowlands. The mean temperature in this area ranges between 15 °C-20 °C.
In the mornings of the winter months of December to February, ground
frost appears.
The average annual rainfall ranges from 2000–2500 mm. The
southwestern
The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each sepa ...
monsoon brings most of the rain from May to September, but the
northeastern monsoon contributes a fair amount of rain as well. All of the island's major rivers arise in the central highlands, and montane rain forests act as the main catchment area.
Flora
The vegetation of this ecoregion is determined by the climate and the
elevation
The elevation of a geographic location is its height above or below a fixed reference point, most commonly a reference geoid, a mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface (see Geodetic datum § Ver ...
. Montane moist forests vegetation is dominated by ''
Dipterocarpus
'' D. retusus'' in Köhler
''Dipterocarpus'' is a genus of flowering plants and the type genus of family Dipterocarpaceae.
''Dipterocarpus'' is the third-largest and most diverse genus among the Dipterocarpaceae. The species are well known for ...
'' while montane savanna and cloud forests with ''
Rhododendron''.
Canopies of ''
Shorea
Fruit of a ''Shorea'' species
''Shorea'' is a genus of about 196 species of mainly rainforest trees in the family Dipterocarpaceae. The genus is named after Sir John Shore, the governor-general of the British East India Company, 1793–1798. T ...
-
Calophyllum
''Calophyllum'' is a genus of tropical flowering plants in the family Calophyllaceae. They are mainly distributed in Asia, with some species in Africa, the Americas, Australasia, and the Pacific Islands.
History
Members of the genus ''Calophyll ...
-
Syzygium
''Syzygium'' () is a genus of flowering plants that belongs to the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. The genus comprises about 1200 species, and has a native range that extends from Africa and Madagascar through southern Asia east through the Pacific. ...
'' community can be seen in submontane forests. The
Understory
In forestry and ecology, understory (American English), or understorey (Commonwealth English), also known as underbrush or undergrowth, includes plant life growing beneath the forest canopy without penetrating it to any great extent, but abo ...
of the higher elevation is dominated by ''
Strobilanthes''. The
Peak Wilderness of all montane rain forests possibly be the only forest area dominated by endemic ''
Stemonoporus
''Stemonoporus'' is a genus of plants in the family Dipterocarpaceae.
Species
It contains the following species:
* '' Stemonoporus acuminatus'' - (Thwaites) P.S.Ashton
* '' Stemonoporus affinis'' - Thwaites
* '' Stemonoporus angustisepalus'' - ...
'' of family
Dipterocarpaceae. Rhododendron species thrive in the wet montane grasslands known as wet ''pathanas'' in
Sinhalese.
Asian elephant
The Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus''), also known as the Asiatic elephant, is the only living species of the genus ''Elephas'' and is distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, from India in the west, Nepal in the no ...
, who roamed freely in these forests, is now locally extinct.
Knuckles Range's vegetation differ from the rest of the central highlands because of the geographical detachment, is having a ''
Myristica
''Myristica'' is a genus of trees in the family Myristicaceae. There are over 150 species, distributed in Asia and the western Pacific.
The type species of the genus, and the most economically important member, is ''Myristica fragrans'' (the nu ...
-
Cullenia
''Cullenia'' is a genus of flowering plants native to India and Sri Lanka. Earlier classification schemes place the genus in the kapok-tree family (Bombacaceae), but the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group places it in the mallow family (Malvaceae).
The ...
-
Aglaia-
Litsea
''Litsea'' is a genus of evergreen or deciduous trees or shrubs belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae. The genus includes a large number of accepted species in tropical and subtropical areas of North America and Asia.
Characteristics
They a ...
'' community.
Biodiversity
The montane forests accommodate more endemic species than the
lowland rain forests.
Half of the country's
flowering plant
Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
s and 51 percent of the endemic
vertebrate
Vertebrates () comprise all animal taxa within the subphylum Vertebrata () (chordates with backbones), including all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with c ...
s are confined to these forests. The isolated Knuckles range harbours several
relict
A relict is a surviving remnant of a natural phenomenon.
Biology
A relict (or relic) is an organism that at an earlier time was abundant in a large area but now occurs at only one or a few small areas.
Geology and geomorphology
In geology, a r ...
, endemic flora and fauna that are distinct from central massif. More than 34 percent of Sri Lanka's endemic trees, shrubs, and herbs are only found in these forests.
Fauna
Mammals
Montane rain forests harbours eight near-endemic mammals, and five are strict endemics.
Small mammals in Sri Lanka shows a great degree of diversity, such as rodents, shrews and bats. Of these mammals 70 percent are smaller than a small cat.
This area is an atypical habitat to the largest carnivore of Sri Lanka,
Sri Lanka leopard. The leopard has categorised as threatened. Another five rodents listed endangered.
*
Sri Lankan long-tailed shrew
*
Kelaart's long-clawed shrew
Kelaart's long-clawed shrew (''Feroculus feroculus'') is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is the only species within the genus ''Feroculus''. It is endemic to Sri Lanka and southern India. Its natural habitats are subtropical or t ...
*
Pearson's long-clawed shrew
*
Sri Lankan shrew
The Sri Lankan shrew (''Suncus fellowesgordoni''), also called Gordon's pygmy shrew, is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is endemic to Sri Lanka. It is threatened by habitat loss
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat los ...
*
Jungle shrew
The near-endemic and strict endemic mammals harbours in the area listed below.
Strict endemic species marked with an asterisk.
*
Asian highland shrew
*
Kelaart's long-clawed shrew
Kelaart's long-clawed shrew (''Feroculus feroculus'') is a species of mammal in the family Soricidae. It is the only species within the genus ''Feroculus''. It is endemic to Sri Lanka and southern India. Its natural habitats are subtropical or t ...
*
*
Sri Lankan long-tailed shrew*
*
Pearson's long-clawed shrew*
*
Purple-faced langur
The purple-faced langur (''Semnopithecus vetulus''), also known as the purple-faced leaf monkey, is a species of Old World monkey that is endemic to Sri Lanka. The animal is a long-tailed arboreal species, identified by a mostly brown appearance ...
*
Golden palm civet
The golden palm civet (''Paradoxurus zeylonensis'') is a palm civet endemic to Sri Lanka. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Its distribution is severely fragmented, and the extent and quality of its habitat in Sri Lanka's hill ...
*
Layard's palm squirrel
*
Dusky palm squirrel
*
Travancore flying squirrel
*
Ceylon spiny mouse
*
Nolthenius's long-tailed climbing mouse
Nolthenius's long-tailed climbing mouse (''Vandeleuria nolthenii''), also known as Sri Lanka highland tree mouse or Podi-gas-miya ( si, ශ්රී ලංකා ගස් මීයා), is a species of rodent
Rodents (from Latin , 'to ...
*
Nillu rat*
*
Ohiya rat*
Birds
Sri Lanka montane rain forests includes in
EBA Sri Lanka. Out of twenty near-endemic birds, five of the bird species are strict endemic.
*
Sri Lanka wood pigeon
*
Sri Lanka grey hornbill
*
Red-faced malkoha
*
Sri Lanka junglefowl
The Sri Lankan junglefowl (''Gallus lafayettii'' sometimes spelled ''Gallus lafayetii''), also known as the Ceylon junglefowl or Lafayette's junglefowl, is a member of the Galliformes bird order which is endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is the nati ...
- The national bird of Sri Lanka
*
Sri Lanka blue magpie
*
White-faced starling
*
Sri Lanka myna
*
Orange-billed babbler
The orange-billed babbler (''Argya rufescens'') also known as Ceylon rufous babbler or Sri Lankan rufous babbler is a member of the family Leiothrichidae.
The orange-billed babbler is a resident breeding bird endemic (ecology), endemic to Sri Lan ...
*
Sri Lanka whistling thrush*
*
Dull-blue flycatcher
The dull-blue flycatcher (''Eumyias sordidus'') is a small passerine bird in the flycatcher family, Muscicapidae. It was previously included in the genus '' Muscicapa''.
This species is an endemic resident breeder in the hills of central Sri ...
*
*
Yellow-eared bulbul*
*
Sri Lanka white-eye
The Sri Lanka white-eye (''Zosterops ceylonensis'') is a small passerine bird in the white-eye family, which is endemic (ecology), endemic to Sri Lanka. It is a resident breeder in forests, gardens and plantations, mainly in the highlands.
Taxo ...
*
*
Sri Lanka bush warbler
The Sri Lanka bush warbler (''Elaphrornis palliseri''), also known as Ceylon bush warbler or Palliser's warbler, is an Old World warbler which is an endemic (ecology), endemic resident breeder in Sri Lanka, where it is the only bush warbler.
Ta ...
*
*
Spot-winged thrush
The spot-winged thrush, (''Geokichla spiloptera''), is an Asian thrush, a group within the large thrush family Turdidae.
It is an endemic resident breeder in Sri Lanka. This uncommon species breeds in hill rainforests, and to a lesser extent ...
*
Kashmir flycatcher
The Kashmir flycatcher (''Ficedula subrubra'') is a small passerine bird in the flycatcher family Muscicapidae. At one time it was considered to be a subspecies of the red-breasted flycatcher, ''Ficedula parva''.
This is an insectivorous speci ...
*
Brown-capped babbler
*
Yellow-fronted barbet
*
Sri Lanka hanging parrot
The Sri Lanka hanging parrot (''Loriculus beryllinus'') is a small parrot which is a resident endemic breeder in Sri Lanka.
Description
The Sri Lanka hanging parrot is a small hanging parrot that is 13 cm long with a short tail. The adult has a ...
*
Layard's parakeet
*
Chestnut-backed owlet
Reptiles and amphibians
Reptiles in Sri Lanka show more endemism than birds and mammals.
Frogs and lizards are among the species is still being newly discovered, along with fishes and crabs.
Threats and conservation
The 15 years from 1990 to 2005 Sri Lanka
showed one of the highest deforestation rates of
primary forest
An old-growth forestalso termed primary forest, virgin forest, late seral forest, primeval forest, or first-growth forestis a forest that has attained great age without significant disturbance, and thereby exhibits unique ecological feature ...
s in the world.
During that period almost 18 percent of Sri Lanka's forest cover was lost, while the deforestation rate also accelerated. The fauna of Sri Lanka also threatened. A survey done in 2005 found 17 of Sri Lanka's frogs have become extinct in the past decade and another 11 species face imminent threat of extinction.
From 1820 large scale forest cleared for coffee plantations and later for tea in the montane forests. The remnant patches of forest corridors logged for agriculture crops. The illicit mining of gems happen even in restricted areas.
The reason for the dying back of montane forest is attributed
toxicity of soil.
The Knuckles range face a different threat. Cultivation of spices especially
cardamom
Cardamom (), sometimes cardamon or cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera ''Elettaria'' and ''Amomum'' in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to the Indian subcontinent and Indonesia. They are r ...
at large scale threatens clearing of the forest.
Invasive exotic plant species such as Mist Flower (''
Ageratina riparia''), Purple Plague (''
Miconia calvescens''), Blue Star (''
Aristea ecklonii
''Aristea ecklonii'' (common names: blue flies, blue stars, blue-eyed iris, blue corn-lily) is a plant species in the Iridaceae, first described in 1866. It is native to central and southern Africa from South Africa north to Cameroon and Tanzan ...
'') and Coster's Curse (''
Clidemia hirta'') that increasingly spread into otherwise well protected mountain forest areas and crowd away the native Sri Lankan flora are a major threat, if not the largest one, to Sri Lankan montane rain forest flora and fauna.
[Ranwala S., Marambe B.*, Wijesundara S., Silva P., Weerakoon D., Atapattu N., Gunawardena J., Manawadu L. and Gamage G]
“Post-entry risk assessment of invasive alien flora of Sri Lanka - present status, gap analysis, and the most troublesome alien invaders”
''Pakistan Journal of Weed Science'' 10/2012; 18:863-871.
Currently the ecoregion is being protected by five protected areas. Those protected areas together accounts only 457 km
2 of area.
These protected areas are;
Gallery
File:Sri Lanka, Horton Plains, Rhododendron trees.jpg, Rhododendron trees in clouds
File:Sri Lanka cloud forest.jpg, Ella rock in clouds
File:Sri Lanka, mountain slopes.jpg, Ella valley
File:Sri Lanka trees, cloud forest.jpg, Ella rock
File:Sri Lanka cloud forest, tall trees in fog.jpg, Montane rainforest in Ella valley
Image:Srilankamountainforest.jpg, World's End provides a cross section to witness function of cloud forests
See also
*
Cloud forest
*
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (TSMF), also known as tropical moist forest, is a subtropical and tropical forest habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature.
Description
TSMF is generally found in large, discon ...
References
{{Geography of Sri Lanka
Ecoregions of Sri Lanka
Forests of Sri Lanka
Indomalayan ecoregions
Montane forests
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests