Southwest Iberian Mediterranean sclerophyllous and mixed forests
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The Southwest Iberian Mediterranean sclerophyllous and mixed forests is a Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
ecoregion An ecoregion (ecological region) or ecozone (ecological zone) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than a biogeographic realm. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of ...
in southwestern Europe. It occupies the southwestern
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
, encompassing coastal lowlands and mountains in portions of Portugal and Spain. The ecoregion has a
Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate (also called a dry summer temperate climate ''Cs'') is a temperate climate sub-type, generally characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, fairly wet winters; these weather conditions are typically experienced in the ...
, moderated by the influence of the
Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe ...
. Summer temperatures tend to be cooler than other Mediterranean climate regions, and winter frosts are rare below 1500 metres.


Geography

The ecoregion occupies the coastal lowlands and hills in Portugal and southwestern Spain, including the lower basins of the
Tagus The Tagus ( ; es, Tajo ; pt, Tejo ; see below) is the longest river in the Iberian Peninsula. The river rises in the Montes Universales near Teruel, in mid-eastern Spain, flows , generally west with two main south-westward sections, to e ...
,
Guadiana The Guadiana River (, also , , ), or Odiana, is an international river defining a long stretch of the Portugal-Spain border, separating Extremadura and Andalusia (Spain) from Alentejo and Algarve (Portugal). The river's basin extends from the ...
, and
Guadalquivir The Guadalquivir (, also , , ) is the fifth-longest river in the Iberian Peninsula and the second-longest river with its entire length in Spain. The Guadalquivir is the only major navigable river in Spain. Currently it is navigable from the Gul ...
rivers. The city of Lisbon is at the mouth of the Tagus, and the cities of
Seville Seville (; es, Sevilla, ) is the capital and largest city of the Spanish autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville. It is situated on the lower reaches of the River Guadalquivir, in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula ...
and Cordoba lie in the valley of the Guadalquivir. Other cities in the ecoregion include Cadiz on the Atlantic, and Málaga on the Alboran Sea. The ecoregion is bounded on the east by the
Iberian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous forests The Iberian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous forests is a Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregion in southwestern Europe. It occupies the interior valleys and plateaus of the Iberian Peninsula. The ecoregion lies mostly in Spain, an ...
, which occupies most of interior Spain and Portugal's interior southeast. In northern coastal Portugal, the ecoregion is bounded on the north by the more humid and temperate Cantabrian mixed forests. To the northeast is the Northwest Iberian montane forests ecoregion.


Flora

The ecoregion's plant communities include: * Evergreen oak forests, with
cork oak ''Quercus suber'', commonly called the cork oak, is a medium-sized, evergreen oak tree in the section ''Quercus'' sect. ''Cerris''. It is the primary source of cork for wine bottle stoppers and other uses, such as cork flooring and as the core ...
(''Quercus suber'') and holm oak (''Quercus rotundifolia'') as the predominant canopy trees, and an evergreen understory of low trees and high shrubs that include ''
Laurus nobilis ''Laurus nobilis'' is an aromatic evergreen tree or large shrub with green, glabrous (smooth) leaves. It is in the flowering plant family Lauraceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and is used as bay leaf for seasoning in cooking. ...
,
Arbutus unedo ''Arbutus unedo'' is an evergreen shrub or small tree in the family Ericaceae, native to the Mediterranean region and western Europe. The tree is well known for its fruits, which bear some resemblance to the strawberry — hence the common na ...
,
Erica arborea ''Erica arborea'', the tree heath or tree heather, is a species of flowering plant (angiosperms) in the heather family Ericaceae, native to the Mediterranean Basin and Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania in East Africa. It is also cultivated as an o ...
,
Erica scoparia ''Erica scoparia'', the green heather, is a shrubby species of heath in the flowering plant family Ericaceae. It is native to the western Mediterranean Basin in the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), Northwest Africa (Morocco, Algeria and T ...
, Ilex aquifolium,
Phillyrea latifolia ''Phillyrea latifolia'', commonly known as green olive tree or mock privet, is a species of tree in the family Oleaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean Basin, from Morocco and Portugal in the west, to the Levant The Levant () is an ...
,
Phillyrea angustifolia ''Phillyrea angustifolia'', the narrow-leaved mock privet,RHS Plants. Available at: https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/24488/i-Phillyrea-angustifolia-i/Details ccessed 22/02/21/ref> is a species of flowering plant in the olive family Oleaceae, native ...
, Viburnum tinus, Cytisus villosus'', and '' Myrtus communis''. * Open-canopied oak woodland with an understory of shrubs, or savanna with an understory of ''
Cistus ladanifer ''Cistus ladanifer'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Cistaceae. It is native to the western Mediterranean region. Common names include gum rockrose, labdanum, common gum cistus, and brown-eyed rockrose. Description It is a shru ...
'' and other low shrubs and grasses, are common, and typically as a result of human disturbance (see next section). * Evergreen woodlands and ''maquis'' (high shrublands), characterized by wild olive (''Olea europaea'') and
carob The carob ( ; ''Ceratonia siliqua'') is a flowering evergreen tree or shrub in the Caesalpinioideae sub-family of the legume family, Fabaceae. It is widely cultivated for its edible fruit pods, and as an ornamental tree in gardens and lands ...
(''Ceratonia siliqua''), with ''
Chamaerops humilis ''Chamaerops'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Arecaceae. The only currently fully accepted species is ''Chamaerops humilis'', variously called European fan palm or the Mediterranean dwarf palm. It is one of the most cold-hardy ...
, Pistacia lentiscus, Phillyrea latifolia, P. angustifolia'', and ''Myrtus communis''. * low shrubland, known in Portugal as ''mato'', dominated by ''
Cistus ladanifer ''Cistus ladanifer'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Cistaceae. It is native to the western Mediterranean region. Common names include gum rockrose, labdanum, common gum cistus, and brown-eyed rockrose. Description It is a shru ...
'', alone or with ''
Ulex argenteus ''Ulex argenteus'' is a species of gorse native to southern Portugal (Algarve and Alentejo) in the Iberian Peninsula. Description ''Ulex argenteus'' is a low-growing shrub with an open branching structure. Branches, stems, and spines are dense ...
, Genista hirsuta'', and ''
Lavandula stoechas ''Lavandula stoechas'', the Spanish lavender or topped lavender (U.S.) or French lavender (U.K.), is a species of flowering plant in the family Lamiaceae, occurring natively in several Mediterranean countries, including France, Spain, Portugal, ...
''. ''Cistus'' shrubland is common in areas of poor soil, and areas disturbed by fire, timber harvesting, and clearance for agriculture or pasture. ''Cistus'' is pyrophitic, and relies on fire to germinate its seeds and remove competing trees and shrubs. Natural
edaphic Edaphology (from Greek , ''edaphos'', "ground",, '' -logia'') is concerned with the influence of soils on living beings, particularly plants. It is one of two main divisions of soil science, the other being pedology. Edaphology includes the stu ...
shrublands also occur on special soil types, including ''serra'' on acidic soils, ''barrocal'' on limestone soils, and ''litoral'' shrublands on the seacoast. * Woodlands of stone pine (''Pinus pinea'') grow near the coast on sandy soils and stabilized dunes.


Fauna

The ecoregion is home to the endangered
Iberian lynx The Iberian lynx (''Lynx pardinus'') is a wild cat species endemic to the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. In the 20th century, the Iberian lynx population had declined because of overhun ...
(''Lynx pardinus'') and
Spanish imperial eagle The Spanish imperial eagle (''Aquila adalberti''), also known as the Spanish eagle or Adalbert's eagle, is a species of eagle native to the Iberian Peninsula. The binomial commemorates Prince Adalbert of Bavaria. Due to its distinct “epaule ...
(''Aquila adalberti''). Both species live in and around
Doñana National Park Doñana National Park or Parque Nacional y Natural de Doñana is a natural reserve in Andalucía, southern Spain, in the provinces of Huelva (most of its territory), Cádiz and Seville. It covers , of which are a protected area. The park is an ...
.


Cork oak silviculture

The people of southern Portugal and southwestern Spain have developed land-use systems centered on cork oak (''Quercus suber''). Cork oaks produce a thick protective bark which is harvested for
cork Cork or CORK may refer to: Materials * Cork (material), an impermeable buoyant plant product ** Cork (plug), a cylindrical or conical object used to seal a container ***Wine cork Places Ireland * Cork (city) ** Metropolitan Cork, also known as G ...
. Harvesting involves peeling the bark from mature trees, which can begin when the trees reach a trunk diameter of 70 cm, typically when they are 20‐25 years old. Cork is harvested by hand with hand axes, and care is taken to minimize injury to the tree so it can continue to grow and produce more cork. Cork can be harvested every nine years from a given tree, and cork oaks can continue to grow and produce harvestable bark for 150 to 200 years or more. Industrially-usable cork is produced only after the third harvest, on trees that are forty years or more in age. Portugal is the planet's leading producer of cork, which is used for wine stoppers, flooring, sound insulation, floats, and more. In Portugal, cork forests predominate in steeper areas with poor soils unsuited to agriculture, including the mountains of
Algarve The Algarve (, , ; from ) is the southernmost NUTS II region of continental Portugal. It has an area of with 467,495 permanent inhabitants and incorporates 16 municipalities ( ''concelhos'' or ''municípios'' in Portuguese). The region has it ...
region and the hills of Alentejo region. Most cork forests are on private land. In some forests the understory shrubs are cleared to reduce fire risk, while in others the understory is allowed to grow naturally. The traditional cork oak agro‐silvopastoral landscapes are known as ''montados'' in Portugal and ''
dehesa A ''dehesa'' () is a multifunctional, agrosylvopastoral system (a type of agroforestry) and cultural landscape of southern and central Spain and southern Portugal; in Portugal, it is known as a ''montado''. Its name comes from the Latin 'defens ...
s'' in Spain. They have a lower tree density than oak forests (40 to 80 trees per hectare), and have an open canopy or widely spaced trees that resemble a
savanna A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland- grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to ...
. The understory is kept clear of shrubs, and used for grazing animals or for growing crops, typically wheat, barley and oats. From the 1920s to the 1960s, Portuguese governments promoted large-scale wheat production, and many montados in the lowlands were cleared for monoculture wheat fields and to accommodate tractors. Since the 1960s Portugal has urbanized, and European and Portuguese agricultural policies no longer favor small-scale wheat farming. As a result, some small ''montado'' farms have been abandoned, and others consolidated into larger commercial farming operations. In Spain, the black Iberian pig is bred in enclosures but allowed to roam in the ''dehesas'', where they graze on acorns. The pigs are slaughtered for
Jamón ibérico ''Jamón ibérico'' (; pt, presunto ibérico ), "Iberian ham" is a variety of ''jamón'' or ''presunto'', a type of cured leg of pork produced in Spain and, to a lesser extent, Portugal. Description According to Spain's '' denominación d ...
, and ham from acorn-fed pigs is considered the highest quality. The ecoregion's oak species (''Quercus ilex, Q. lusitanica, Q. pyrenaica'', and ''Q. suber'') produce acorns at different times of the year, so ''dehesas'' with diverse oak flora can sustain more pigs. Trained pigs are also used to harvest sought-after
black truffle ''Tuber melanosporum'', called the black truffle, Périgord truffle or French black truffle, is a species of truffle native to Southern Europe. It is one of the most expensive edible mushrooms in the world. Taxonomy Italian naturalist Carlo Vi ...
s from the roots of oak trees. In recent decades, interest in sustainable silviculture practices as a response to
climate change and biodiversity loss Climate change has adversely affected both terrestrial and marine ecosystems, and is expected to further affect many ecosystems, including tundra, mangroves, coral reefs, caves etc. Increasing global temperature, more frequent occurrence of ext ...
has grown. Herdade do Freixo do Meio farm in Foros de Vale Figueira village, near
Montemor-o-Novo Montemor-o-Novo () is a municipality in the District of Évora in Portugal. The population in 2011 was 17,437, in an area of 1232.97 km2. The city itself had a population of 8,928 in 2001. The present Mayor is Olímpio Manuel Vidigal Galvão, ...
in Alentejo, is reviving a form of ''montado'' silviculture. On the 600-hectare farm walnut, cork oak, olive, citrus, and other fruit and nut trees support grape vines, and provide food and shade to old varieties of pigs, cows, chickens, and turkeys.


Plantations

Extensive areas of Portugal have been planted with plantations of
Maritime pine ''Pinus pinaster'', the maritime pine or cluster pine, is a pine native to the south Atlantic Europe region and parts of the western Mediterranean. It is a hard, fast growing pine bearing small seeds with large wings. Description ''Pinus pinast ...
(''Pinus pinaster'') and introduced eucalyptus, mostly ''
Eucalyptus globulus ''Eucalyptus globulus'', commonly known as southern blue gum or blue gum, is a species of tall, evergreen tree endemic to southeastern Australia. This ''Eucalyptus'' species has mostly smooth bark, juvenile leaves that are whitish and waxy on ...
''. Pine is used chiefly for timber and
particle board Particle board, also known as chipboard or low-density fiberboard, is an engineered wood product manufactured from wood chips and a synthetic resin or other suitable binder, which is pressed and extruded. Particle board is often confused with ...
, while eucalyptus is used to make paper. From the 1970s onwards eucalyptus plantations increased in extent, mostly replacing pine plantations. 20% of the area planted in eucalyptus is managed by timber companies, with the rest on plots, often small, managed by individual landowners. Mixed stands of eucalyptus and pines are also common, particularly in untended plantations. ''Eucalyptus globulus'' can naturalize and spread into areas with sufficient water. In April 2017, the Portuguese government announced its intention to prohibit the expansion of eucalyptus plantations, which was opposed by the pulp industry and landowners. In the aftermath of the deadly
June 2017 Portugal wildfires A series of four initial deadly wildfires erupted across central Portugal in the afternoon of 17 June 2017 within minutes of each other, resulting in at least 66 deaths and 204 injured people. The majority of deaths took place in the Pedr ...
which resulted in 66 deaths and 204 injuries, the government announced further restrictions, including a ban on growing eucalyptus in certain areas, fines on the unauthorized purchase of eucalyptus seedlings, and permission to plant or re-plant eucalyptus only in designated areas, with one half-hectare permitted for each hectare removed from areas deemed unsuitable.


Protected areas

14,761 km2, or 21%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas.Eric Dinerstein, David Olson, et al. (2017). An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm, BioScience, Volume 67, Issue 6, June 2017, Pages 534–545; Supplemental material 2 table S1b

/ref> Protected areas include
Arrábida Natural Park Arrábida Natural Park ( pt, Parque Natural da Arrábida) is a protected area in Portugal. Founded in 1976, the park occupies an area of , ( on land and at sea) covering the southernmost margin of the Setúbal Peninsula. One of the park's uniqu ...
(176.53 km2),
Ria Formosa Natural Park The Ria Formosa lagoon, located in the Algarve, in southern Portugal, is a system of barrier islands that connects to the sea through six Inlet, inlets. Five of these inlets are natural and have mobility characteristics. The sixth is an artificia ...
(179.01 km2),
Serras de Aire e Candeeiros Natural Park Serras de Aire e Candeeiros Natural Park (PNSAC) is a natural park in central west Portugal. It occupies an area of and is the most important repository of limestone formations in Portugal with a variety of geological formations associated with ...
(383.92 km2),
Sintra-Cascais Natural Park The Sintra-Cascais Natural Park is a park on the Portuguese Riviera, one of the 13 Natural Parks of Portugal. While only established in 1994 as a Natural Park by the Portuguese Government, it has been protected since 1981. Its area is approximate ...
(144.51 km2), and Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina Natural Park (895.72 km2) in Portugal, and
Los Alcornocales Natural Park Los Alcornocales Natural Park (in Spanish, Parque natural de Los Alcornocales) is a natural park located in the south of Spain, in the autonomous community of Andalusia; it is shared between the Province of Cádiz and Málaga. The natural park o ...
and
Doñana National Park Doñana National Park or Parque Nacional y Natural de Doñana is a natural reserve in Andalucía, southern Spain, in the provinces of Huelva (most of its territory), Cádiz and Seville. It covers , of which are a protected area. The park is an ...
in Spain.


External links

*


References

{{reflist Ecoregions of Europe Ecoregions of Portugal Ecoregions of Spain Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Palearctic ecoregions Sclerophyll forests