Inscriptions and historical sources assert that the

Medieval Chola Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century CE and established one of the greatest empires of South India. They successfully united South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influen ...

Emperor

Rajendra Chola I Rajendra Chola I (; Middle Tamil: Rājēntira Cōḻaṉ; Classical Sanskrit: Rājēndradēva Cōla; Old Malay: ''Raja Suran''; c. 971 CE – 1044 CE), often referred to as Rajendra the Great, and also known as Gangaikonda Chola (Middle Tamil ...

sent a naval expedition to

Indochina Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west an ...

, the

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...

and Malay Peninsula in 1025 in order to subdue Srivijaya. Kulke, p 212 The Thiruvalangadu plates, the Leyden grant, and the Tamil stele of Rajendra Chola I are the principal sources of information about the campaign.

Sources

The most detailed source of information on the campaign is the Tamil stele of

Sastri Sastri is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: * A. Seshayya Sastri (1828–1903), Indian administrator, Diwan of Travancore 1872–1877 and Diwan of Pudukkottai 1878–1894 * Bapudeva Sastri (1821–1900), Indian scholar in Sanskrit ...

, p 211 The stele states: The Thiruvalangadu plates, from the fourteenth year of Rajendra Chola I, mentions his conquest of Kadaram but does not go into the details. The first attempt by someone from outside India to identify the places associated with the campaign was made by

epigraphist Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...

E. Hultzsch Eugen Julius Theodor Hultzsch (29 March 1857 – 16 January 1927) was a German indologist and epigraphist who is known for his work in deciphering the inscriptions of Ashoka. Early life and education Born in Dresden on 29 March 1857, Hultzsch st ...

, who had published the stele in 1891.

, p 212 Hultzsch identified the principalities mentioned in the inscription with places ruled by the Pandyan Dynasty. In 1903, he rescinded his theory and stated that the stele described Rajendra Chola I's conquest of

Bago Bago may refer to: Places Myanmar * Bago, Myanmar, a city and the capital of the Bago Region * Bago District, a district of the Bago Region * Bago Region an administrative region * Bago River, a river * Bago Yoma or Pegu Range, a mountain rang ...

Burma Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John Wells explai ...

George Coedès George may refer to: People * George (given name) * George (surname) * George (singer), American-Canadian singer George Nozuka, known by the mononym George * George Washington, First President of the United States * George W. Bush, 43rd Preside ...

' ''Le Royaume de Sri Vijaya'' published in 1918 after several years of research, rejected both the theories and provided the first convincing description of Rajendra Chola I's conquest of Southeast Asia.

, p 213

Causes

The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola dynasty of southern India was initially friendly during the reign of

Raja Raja Chola I Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), born Arunmozhi Varman or Arulmozhi Varman and often described as Raja Raja the Great or Raja Raja Chozhan was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He was the most powerful Tamil king in South ...

. In 1006 CE a Srivijayan Maharaja from

Sailendra The Shailendra dynasty (, derived from Sanskrit combined words ''Śaila'' and ''Indra'', meaning "King of the Mountain", also spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century ...

dynasty, king

Maravijayattungavarman Sri Maravijayottunggavarman was a king of Srivijaya Kingdom of Shailendra dynasty, who reigned between 1008-c.1025 CE. He was the son of King Sri Chudamanivarmadeva. He was called ''Se-li-ma-la-pi'' in the Chinese chronicle. Biography Maravijay ...

, constructed the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of

Nagapattinam Nagapattinam (''nākappaṭṭinam'', previously spelt Nagapatnam or Negapatam) is a town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Nagapattinam District. The town came to prominence during the period of Medieva ...

, pp 219–220 However, during the reign of

the relations deteriorate as the Chola Dynasty started to attack Srivijayan cities.Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay,Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67 The causes of the hostility are obscure. While some scholars opine that the campaign was undertaken to establish Chola dominance over the seas of South-East Asia, other suggest that it might have been a war of plunder. It seems that the Khmer king

Suryavarman I Suryavarman I ( km, សូរ្យវរ្ម័នទី១; posthumously ''Nirvanapada'') was king of the Khmer Empire from 1006 to 1050. Suryavarman usurped King Udayadityavarman I, defeating his armies in approximately 1002. After a protra ...

of the Khmer Empire requested aid from the powerful Chola Emperor

of the

Chola dynasty The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE ...

against

Tambralinga Tambralinga ( sa, Tāmbraliṅga) was an Indianised kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula, existing at least from the 10th to 13th century. It was under the influence of Srivijaya for some time, but later became independent from it. The name ha ...

kingdom .Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. R. C. Majumdar (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the Srivijiya Empire. The war ended with a victory for the

and Angkor Wat of the Khmer Empire, and major losses for the Sri Vijaya Empire and the

kingdom.

Conquests

; Sri Vijaya The stele of Rajendra Chola I mentions Sri Vijaya as the first of the countries conquered.

, p 215 The Tamil inscription lists Sri Vijaya with "its jewelled wicket-gate" and "a gate of large jewels" as the first of the treasures captured by the fleet. The Sri Vijaya, mentioned in the inscriptions, has been identified by Coedès with the Sri Vijaya kingdom which rule from its base at Palembang in

South Sumatra South Sumatra ( id, Sumatra Selatan) is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the southeast of the island of Sumatra, The province spans and had a population of 8,467,432 at the 2020 Census. The capital of the province is Palembang. The prov ...

. ; Pannai

Pannai Pannai, Panai or Pane was a Buddhist kingdom located on the east coast of Northern Sumatra that existed between the 11th and 14th centuries. The kingdom was located on the Barumun River and Panai River valleys, in today's Labuhan Batu and Sout ...

, with its bathing ghats, is second of the lands to be conquered by the naval fleet. Pannai has been identified as Panai or Pane, a city on the eastern coast of North Sumatra, located on the estuary of Panai River and

Barumun River Barumun River is a Sumatran river that begins in Siraisan, Padang Lawas Regency in the southeastern North Sumatra, Indonesia, about 1200 km northwest of the capital Jakarta.Malayu in today Jambi province in

Batanghari The Batang Hari ( Indonesian: ''Sungai Batanghari'') is the longest river in Jambi province, Sumatra island, Indonesia, about northwest of the capital Jakarta. Hydrology The river originates in the Minangkabau Highlands, home of the Minan ...

river valley, where a strong principality flourished at that time. Other suggestion is the southern part of the Malay peninsula ; Mayirudingam Mayirudingam is believed to be the same as Ji-lo-ting listed by the Chinese writer Chau Ju-Kua among the dependencies of Sri Vijaya and is identified with the city of

Chaiya Chaiya ( th, ไชยา, ) is a former capital district ('' Amphoe mueang'') of Surat Thani province, Southern Thailand. The main town is Talat Chaiya. Geography Neighboring districts are (from the south clockwise): Tha Chang and Kapoe of ...

in the centre of the Malay peninsula. ; Ilangasoka The land of Ilangasoka (

Langkasuka Langkasuka was an ancient Hindu-Buddhist kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. The name is Sanskrit in origin; it is thought to be a combination of ''langkha'' for "resplendent land" -'' sukkha'' for "bliss". The kingdom, along with Old K ...

) mentioned in the inscriptions has been located on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula and is believed to be the same as the province of Ling-ya-sseu-kia mentioned in Chau Ju-Kua's list. ; Mapappalam The epigraphist V. Venkayya identifies Mapappalam of the inscription with the city of Papphalama mentioned in the ''Mahavamsa''.

, p 216 The place is believed to be located in the Talaing region of Lower Burma. ; Talaittakkolam Talaittakkolam is believed to be the same as Takkola mentioned by

Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; grc-gre, Πτολεμαῖος, ; la, Claudius Ptolemaeus; AD) was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist, who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were of importance ...

as a trading emporion on the Golden Chersonese, and identified with Trang or the modern-day city of Takuapa in the

Isthmus of Kra The Kra Isthmus ( th, คอคอดกระ, ) in Thailand is the narrowest part of the Malay Peninsula. The western part of the isthmus belongs to Ranong Province and the eastern part to Chumphon Province, both in Southern Thailand. The ...

. ; Nakkavaram Nakkavaram, mentioned in the records, has been identified by V. Venkayya with the Nicobar Islands. ; Kadaram The place Kadaram (modern

Kedah Kedah (), also known by its honorific Darul Aman and historically as Queda, is a state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. The state covers a total area of over 9,000 km2, and it consists of the mainland ...

) mentioned in the stele is identified with the Kataha of Sanskrit literature and Kadaram of the ''Kalingattuparani'' and the Kiet-cha of the Chinese chronicles.

, p 217

, p 218

Results

The Southeast Asia campaign intensified interactions between India and Southeast Asia. The campaign also led to the establishment of diplomatic ties with China. The first Indian embassy to the court of the Song Emperor was sent by

in 1015. This was followed by a second embassy by his son,

, in 1033 and a third by

Kulothunga Chola I Kulottunga I (;1025 CE - 1122 CE) also spelt Kulothunga (), was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1070 CE to 1122 CE succeeding his cousin Athirajendra Chola. He also served as the Eastern Chalukya king from 1061 CE to 1118 CE, succeeding his ...

in 1077. The Chola Empire did not establish its direct rule over South-East Asia though they might have levied a periodic tribute. Traders from the Tamil country firmly established themselves over various parts of South-East Asia. A merchant guild was set up in Burma and another in Sumatra in 1088. Indian historian

V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar Vishnampet R. Ramachandra Dikshitar (16 April 1896 – 24 November 1953) was a historian, Indologist and Dravidologist from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. He was professor of history and archaeology at the University of Madras and is the auth ...

suggests that Tamil traders of the Chola period might have had a knowledge of Australia and

Polynesia Polynesia () "many" and νῆσος () "island"), to, Polinisia; mi, Porinihia; haw, Polenekia; fj, Polinisia; sm, Polenisia; rar, Porinetia; ty, Pōrīnetia; tvl, Polenisia; tkl, Polenihia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of ...

Notes

Bibliography

* * {{cite book , first= K. A. Nilakanta, last=Sastri, author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri , orig-year= 1935, year= 2000, title= The Cōlas, publisher=

University of Madras The University of Madras (informally known as Madras University) is a public state university in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. Established in 1857, it is one of the oldest and among the most prestigious universities in India, incorporated by an a ...

, location= Madras, ref=Sastri Military history of Southeast Asia 1025 in Asia Military campaigns involving the Chola Empire Conflicts in 1025 History of the foreign relations of India Naval battles involving Cholas