The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a

family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants t ...

s that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of

agricultural Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peopl ...

crops, medicinal plants, spices, weeds, and ornamentals. Many members of the family contain potent

alkaloid Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of simila ...

s, and some are highly

toxic Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a sub ...

, but many—including

tomato The tomato is the edible berry of the plant ''Solanum lycopersicum'', commonly known as the tomato plant. The species originated in western South America, Mexico, and Central America. The Mexican Nahuatl word gave rise to the Spanish word ...

es,

potato The potato is a starchy food, a tuber of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'' and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae. Wild potato species can be found from the southern Uni ...

es,

eggplant Eggplant ( US, Canada), aubergine ( UK, Ireland) or brinjal (Indian subcontinent, Singapore, Malaysia, South Africa) is a plant species in the nightshade family Solanaceae. ''Solanum melongena'' is grown worldwide for its edible fruit. Mo ...

, bell and

chili pepper Chili peppers (also chile, chile pepper, chilli pepper, or chilli), from Nahuatl '' chīlli'' (), are varieties of the berry-fruit of plants from the genus ''Capsicum'', which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for ...

s—are used as

food Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is in ...

. The family belongs to the order Solanales, in the asterid group and class Magnoliopsida (

dicotyledon The dicotyledons, also known as dicots (or, more rarely, dicotyls), are one of the two groups into which all the flowering plants (angiosperms) were formerly divided. The name refers to one of the typical characteristics of the group: namely, t ...

s). The Solanaceae consists of about 98 genera and some 2,700 species, with a great diversity of

habitats In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...

, morphology and

ecology Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overl ...

. The name Solanaceae derives from the genus '' Solanum''. The etymology of the

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...

word is unclear. The name may come from a perceived resemblance of certain solanaceous flowers to the sun and its rays. At least one species of ''Solanum'' is known as the "sunberry". Alternatively, the name could originate from the Latin verb ''solare'', meaning "to soothe", presumably referring to the soothing pharmacological properties of some of the

psychoactive A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, psychoactive agent or psychotropic drug is a chemical substance, that changes functions of the nervous system, and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior. Th ...

species of the family. This family has a worldwide distribution, being present on all continents except

Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean, it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest cont ...

. The greatest diversity in species is found in

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the sou ...

and

Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...

. In 2017, scientists reported on their discovery and analysis of a fossil species belonging to the living genus '' Physalis'', ''

Physalis infinemundi ''Physalis infinemundi'' is an extinct species of the genus ''Physalis'' (which includes Cape gooseberry, tomatillo, and ground cherries) known from two fossilised fruit found in the Laguna del Hunco Formation of Chubut Province, Argentina dati ...

'', found in the Patagonian region of Argentina, dated to 52 million years ago. The finding has pushed back the earliest appearance of the plant family Solanaceae. The Solanaceae family includes a number of commonly collected or cultivated species. The most economically important genus of the family is ''Solanum'', which contains the

(''S. tuberosum'', in fact, another common name of the family is the "potato family"), the

(''S. lycopersicum''), and the

or aubergine (''S. melongena''). Another important genus, ''

Capsicum ''Capsicum'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae, native to the Americas, cultivated worldwide for their chili pepper or bell pepper fruit. Etymology and names The generic name may come from Latin , me ...

'', produces both

s and bell peppers. The genus ''Physalis'' produces the so-called groundcherries, as well as the tomatillo (''Physalis philadelphica''), '' Physalis peruviana'' (Cape gooseberry) and '' Physalis alkekengi'' (Chinese lantern). The genus ''

Lycium ''Lycium'' is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The genus has a disjunct distribution around the globe, with species occurring on most continents in temperate and subtropical regions. South America has the most s ...

'' contains the boxthorns and the goji berry, ''

Lycium barbarum ''Lycium barbarum'' is a shrub native to China, with present-day range across Asia and southeast Europe. It is one of two species of boxthorn in the family Solanaceae from which the goji berry or wolfberry is harvested, the other being ''Lycium ...

''. ''

Nicotiana ''Nicotiana'' () is a genus of herbaceous plants and shrubs in the family Solanaceae, that is indigenous to the Americas, Australia, Southwestern Africa and the South Pacific. Various ''Nicotiana'' species, commonly referred to as tobacco pla ...

'' contains, among other species,

tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...

. Some other important members of Solanaceae include a number of ornamental plants such as '' Petunia'', ''

Browallia ''Browallia'' is a small genus of seven species of flowering plants (mostly annuals though occasionally shrubs or ephemerophytes) belonging to the nightshade family Solanaceae. Armando T. Hunziker: The Genera of Solanaceae. A.R.G. Gantner Verla ...

'', and ''

Lycianthes ''Lycianthes'' is a genus of plants from the nightshade family (Solanaceae), found in both the Old World and the New World, but predominantly in the latter. It contains roughly 150 species, mostly from tropical America, with 35-40 species in Asia ...

'', and sources of psychoactive alkaloids, ''

Datura ''Datura'' is a genus of nine species of highly poisonous, vespertine-flowering plants belonging to the nightshade family Solanaceae. They are commonly known as thornapples or jimsonweeds, but are also known as devil's trumpets (not to be co ...

'', '' Mandragora'' (mandrake), and ''

Atropa belladonna ''Atropa belladonna'', commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae, which also includes tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant (aubergine). It is native to Europe, ...

'' (deadly nightshade). Certain species are widely known for their medicinal uses, their psychotropic effects, or for being poisonous. Most of the economically important genera are contained in the subfamily Solanoideae, with the exceptions of tobacco (''Nicotiana tabacum'', Nicotianoideae) and petunia (''Petunia'' × ''hybrida'', Petunioideae). Many of the Solanaceae, such as tobacco and petunia, are used as

model organism A model organism (often shortened to model) is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the model organism will provide insight into the workin ...

s in the investigation of fundamental biological questions at the cellular,

molecular A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and bio ...

, and genetic levels.

Etymology and pronunciation

The name "Solanaceae" () comes to international scientific vocabulary from New Latin, from '' Solanum'', the type genus, + '' -aceae'', a standardized

suffix In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns, adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Suffixes can carr ...

for plant family names in modern taxonomy. The genus name comes from the

Classical Latin Classical Latin is the form of Literary Latin recognized as a literary standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. It was used from 75 BC to the 3rd century AD, when it developed into Late Latin. In some later period ...

word '' solanum'', referring to nightshades (especially ''

Solanum nigrum ''Solanum nigrum'', the European black nightshade or simply black nightshade or blackberry nightshade, is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Solanum'', native to Eurasia and introduced in the Americas, Australasia, and South Africa. Rip ...

''), "probably from

sol Sol or SOL may refer to: Astronomy * The Sun Currency * SOL Project, a currency project in France * French sol, or sou * Argentine sol * Bolivian sol, the currency of Bolivia from 1827 to 1864 * Peruvian sol, introduced in 1991 * Peruvian sol ...

, 'sun', + '' -anum'', neuter of '' -anus''."

Description

Plants in the Solanaceae can take the form of herbs,

shrub A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from tree ...

tree In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...

vine A vine (Latin ''vīnea'' "grapevine", "vineyard", from ''vīnum'' "wine") is any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent (that is, climbing) stems, lianas or runners. The word ''vine'' can also refer to such stems or runners themsel ...

s and lianas, and sometimes epiphytes. They can be annuals,

biennials A biennial plant is a flowering plant that, generally in a temperate climate, takes two years to complete its biological life cycle. Life cycle In its first year, the biennal plant undergoes primary growth, during which its vegetative structures ...

, or perennials, upright or decumbent. Some have subterranean

tuber Tubers are a type of enlarged structure used as storage organs for nutrients in some plants. They are used for the plant's perennation (survival of the winter or dry months), to provide energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growing ...

s. They do not have

laticifer A laticifer is a type of elongated secretory cell found in the leaves and/or stems of plants that produce latex and rubber as secondary metabolites. Laticifers may be divided into: *Articulated laticifers, i.e., composed of a series of cells joined ...

s, nor

latex Latex is an emulsion (stable dispersion) of polymer microparticles in water. Latexes are found in nature, but synthetic latexes are common as well. In nature, latex is found as a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms ...

, nor coloured saps. They can have a basal or terminal group of leaves or neither of these types. The

leaves A leaf ( : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, st ...

are generally alternate or alternate to opposed (that is, alternate at the base of the plant and opposed towards the

inflorescence An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are forme ...

). The leaves can be herbaceous, leathery, or transformed into spines. The leaves are generally petiolate or subsessile, rarely sessile. They are frequently inodorous, but some are aromatic or fetid. The foliar lamina can be either simple or compound, and the latter can be either pinnatifid or ternate. The leaves have reticulated venation and lack a basal meristem. The laminae are generally dorsiventral and lack secretory cavities. The

stoma In botany, a stoma (from Greek ''στόμα'', "mouth", plural "stomata"), also called a stomate (plural "stomates"), is a pore found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs, that controls the rate of gas exchange. The pore is bo ...

ta are generally confined to one of a leaf's two sides; they are rarely found on both sides. The

flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanis ...

s are generally

hermaphrodite In reproductive biology, a hermaphrodite () is an organism that has both kinds of reproductive organs and can produce both gametes associated with male and female sexes. Many taxonomic groups of animals (mostly invertebrates) do not have ...

s, although some are

monoecious Monoecy (; adj. monoecious ) is a sexual system in seed plants where separate male and female cones or flowers are present on the same plant. It is a monomorphic sexual system alongside gynomonoecy, andromonoecy and trimonoecy. Monoecy is ...

, andromonoecious, or dioecious species (such as some ''Solanum'' or ''Symonanthus'').

Pollination Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an Stamen, anther of a plant to the stigma (botany), stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds, most often by an animal or by Anemophily, wind. Pollinating agents can ...

is entomophilous. The flowers can be solitary or grouped into terminal, cymose, or axillary inflorescences. The flowers are medium-sized, fragrant (''Nicotiana''), fetid (''Anthocercis''), or inodorous. The flowers are usually actinomorphic, slightly zygomorphic, or markedly zygomorphic (for example, in flowers with a bilabial corolla in ''Schizanthus'' species). The irregularities in symmetry can be due to the

androecium The stamen ( plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the fil ...

, to the

perianth The perianth (perigonium, perigon or perigone in monocots) is the non-reproductive part of the flower, and structure that forms an envelope surrounding the sexual organs, consisting of the calyx (sepals) and the corolla ( petals) or tepals when ...

, or both at the same time. In the great majority of species, the flowers have a differentiated perianth with a calyx and

corolla Corolla may refer to: *Corolla (botany), the petals of a flower, considered as a unit *Toyota Corolla, an automobile model name *Corolla (headgear) A ''corolla'' is an ancient headdress in the form of a small circlet or crown.stamen The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the fila ...

s and two carpels forming a

gynoecium Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) '' pist ...

with a superior

ovary The ovary is an organ in the female reproductive system that produces an ovum. When released, this travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus, where it may become fertilized by a sperm. There is an ovary () found on each side of the body. ...

(they are therefore referred to as pentamers and tetracyclic). The

stamen The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the fila ...

s are epipetalous and are typically present in multiples of four or five, most commonly four or eight. They usually have a hypogynous disk. The calyx is gamosepalous (as the sepals are joined forming a tube), with the (4)5(6) segments equal, it has five lobes, with the lobes shorter than the tube, it is persistent and often accrescent. The corolla usually has five petals that are also joined forming a tube. Flower shapes are typically rotate (wheel-shaped, spreading in one plane, with a short tube) or tubular (elongated cylindrical tube), campanulated or funnel-shaped. The androecium has (2)(4)5(6) free stamens within it opposite sepals (they alternate with the petals). They are usually fertile or, in some cases (for example in Salpiglossideae) they have staminodes. In the latter case, there is usually either one staminode (''Salpiglossis'') or three (''Schizanthus''). The anthers touch on their upper end forming a ring, or they are completely free, dorsifixed, or basifixed with poricide dehiscence or through small longitudinal cracks. The stamen's filament can be filliform or flat. The stamens can be inserted inside the coralline tube or exserted. The plants demonstrate simultaneous microsporogenesis, the microspores are tetrad, tetrahedral, or isobilateral. The pollen grains are bicellular at the moment of dehiscence, usually open and angular. The gynoecium is bicarpelar (rarely three- or five-locular) with a

superior Superior may refer to: *Superior (hierarchy), something which is higher in a hierarchical structure of any kind Places *Superior (proposed U.S. state), an unsuccessful proposal for the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to form a separate state *Lake ...

and two locules, which may be secondarily divided by false

septa The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA) is a regional public transportation authority that operates bus, rapid transit, commuter rail, light rail, and electric trolleybus services for nearly 4 million people in five c ...

, as is the case for Nicandreae and Datureae. The gynoecium is located in an oblique position relative to the flower's median plane. They have one style and one stigma; the latter is simple or bilobate. Each locule has one to 50 ovules that are anatropous or hemianatropous with axillar placentation. The development of the embryo sack can be the same as for ''Polygonum'' or ''Allium'' species. The embryo sack's

nuclear poles Nuclear may refer to: Physics Relating to the nucleus of the atom: *Nuclear engineering *Nuclear physics *Nuclear power *Nuclear reactor *Nuclear weapon *Nuclear medicine *Radiation therapy *Nuclear warfare Mathematics *Nuclear space *Nuclear ...

become fused before

fertilization Fertilisation or fertilization (see spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to give rise to a new individual organism or offspring and initiate its development. Pro ...

. The three antipodes are usually ephemeral or persistent as in the case of ''Atropa''. The

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in partic ...

can be a

berry A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples are strawberries, rasp ...

as in the case of the tomato or wolfberry a dehiscent capsule as in ''Datura'', or a drupe. The fruit has axial placentation. The capsules are normally septicidal or rarely loculicidal or valvate. The

seed A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosper ...

s are usually endospermic, oily (rarely starchy), and without obvious hairs. The seeds of most Solanaceae are round and flat, about in diameter. The embryo can be straight or curved, and has two cotyledons. Most species in the Solanaceae have 2n=24

chromosome A chromosome is a long DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells the most important of these proteins ar ...

s, but the number may be a higher multiple of 12 due to polyploidy. Wild

es, of which there are about 200, are predominantly diploid (2 × 12 = 24 chromosomes), but triploid (3 × 12 = 36 chromosomes), tetraploid (4 × 12 = 48 chromosomes), pentaploid (5 × 12 = 60) and even hexaploid (6 × 12 = 72 chromosome) species or populations exist. The cultivated species ''Solanum tuberosum'' has 4 × 12 = 48 chromosomes. Some ''Capsicum'' species have 2 × 12 = 24 chromosomes, while others have 26 chromosomes.

Diversity of characteristics

Despite the previous description, the Solanaceae exhibit a large morphological variability, even in their reproductive characteristics. Examples of this diversity include: Hunziker, A.T. 1979: South American Solanaceae: a synoptic review. In: D'ARCY, W.G., 1979: The Biology and Taxonomy of the Solanaceae. Linn. Soc. Symp. Ser. 7: p 48-85. Linnean Soc. & Academic Press; London.Balken, J.A. THE PLANT FAMILY SOLANACEAE: FRUITS IN SOLANACEAE * The number of carpels that form the gynoecium In general, the Solanaceae have a gynoecium (the female part of the flower) formed of two carpels. However, ''Melananthus'' has a monocarpelar gynoecium, there are three or four carpels in ''

'', three to five in '' Nicandra'', some species of ''

Jaborosa ''Jaborosa'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Solanaceae, the nightshades. There are about 23 species, all native to South America, where they are distributed from Peru to Patagonia. Most occur in the Andes. Most can be found in Arg ...

'' and '' Trianaea'' and four carpels in ''Iochroma umbellatum''. * The number of locules in the ovary The number of locules in the ovary is usually the same as the number of carpels. However, some species occur in which the numbers are not the same due to the existence of false septa (internal walls that subdivide each locule), such as in ''Datura'' and some members of the Lycieae (the genera ''

Grabowskia ''Grabowskia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, ...

'' and ''Vassobia''). * Type of ovules and their number The ovules are generally inverted, folded sharply backwards (anatropous), but some genera have ovules that are rotated at right angles to their stalk (campilotropous) as in ''Phrodus'', ''

'' or ''Vassobia''), or are partially inverted (hemitropous as in '' Cestrum'', ''Capsicum'', ''

Schizanthus ''Schizanthus'' , also called butterfly flower, fringeflower, poor-man's-orchid, is a genus of plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. They are annual or biennial herbaceous plants, with attractive flowers and they belong to the subfamily ...

'' and ''Lycium''). The number of ovules per locule also varies from a few (two pairs in each locule in ''Grabowskia'', one pair in each locule in ''Lycium'') and very occasionally only one ovule is in each locule as for example in ''Melananthus''. * The type of fruit The fruits of the great majority of the Solanaceae are berries or capsules (including pyxidia) and less often drupes. Berries are common in the subfamilies Cestroideae, Solanoideae (with the exception of ''Datura'', ''Oryctus'', ''Grabowskia'' and the tribe Hyoscyameae) and the tribe Juanulloideae (with the exception of ''

Markea ''Markea'' is a genus of plant in family Solanaceae The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of agri ...

''). Capsules are characteristic of the subfamilies Cestroideae (with the exception of '' Cestrum'') and Schizanthoideae, the tribes Salpiglossoideae and Anthocercidoideae, and the genus ''Datura''. The tribe Hyoscyameae has pyxidia. Drupes are typical of the Lycieae tribe and in Iochrominae.

Alkaloids

Alkaloid Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of simila ...

s are nitrogenous organic substances produced by plants as a secondary metabolite and which have an intense physiological action on animals even at low doses. Solanaceae are known for having a diverse range of alkaloids. To humans, these alkaloids can be desirable, toxic, or both. The tropanes are the most well-known of the alkaloids found in the Solanaceae. The plants that contain these substances have been used for centuries as poisons. However, despite being recognized as poisons, many of these substances have invaluable pharmaceutical properties. Many species contain a variety of alkaloids that can be more or less active or poisonous, such as

scopolamine Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine, or Devil's Breath, is a natural or synthetically produced tropane alkaloid and anticholinergic drug that is formally used as a medication for treating motion sickness and postoperative nausea and vomi ...

atropine Atropine is a tropane alkaloid and anticholinergic medication used to treat certain types of nerve agent and pesticide poisonings as well as some types of slow heart rate, and to decrease saliva production during surgery. It is typically given ...

hyoscyamine Hyoscyamine (also known as daturine or duboisine) is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid and plant toxin. It is a secondary metabolite found in certain plants of the family Solanaceae, including henbane, mandrake, angel's trumpets, jims ...

, and

nicotine Nicotine is a naturally produced alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants (most predominantly in tobacco and '' Duboisia hopwoodii'') and is widely used recreationally as a stimulant and anxiolytic. As a pharmaceutical drug, it is use ...

. They are found in plants such as henbane (''

Hyoscyamus albus ''Hyoscyamus albus'', the white henbane or yellow henbane, is a plant in the family of Solanaceae. It is native to Southern Europe, North Africa, West Asia and Macaronesia Macaronesia (Portuguese: ''Macaronésia,'' Spanish: ''Macaronesia'') ...

''), belladonna (''

''), jimson weed ('' Datura stramonium''), mandrake ('' Mandragora autumnalis''), tobacco, and others. Some of the main types of alkaloids are:

Solanine Solanine is a glycoalkaloid poison found in species of the nightshade family within the genus '' Solanum'', such as the potato (''Solanum tuberosum''), the tomato (''Solanum lycopersicum''), and the eggplant (''Solanum melongena''). It can occ ...

: A

glycoalkaloid with a bitter taste, it has the formula C₄₅H₇₃NO₁₅. It is formed by the alkaloid solanidine with a

carbohydrate In organic chemistry, a carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where ''m'' may o ...

side chain. It is found in leaves, fruit, and tubers of various Solanaceae such as the potato and tomato. Its production is thought to be an adaptive defence strategy against herbivores.

Substance intoxication Substance intoxication is a transient condition of altered consciousness and behavior associated with recent use of a substance. It is often maladaptive and impairing, but reversible. If the symptoms are severe, the term "substance intoxication ...

from solanine is characterized by gastrointestinal disorders (

diarrhoea Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin w ...

vomiting Vomiting (also known as emesis and throwing up) is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenter ...

, abdominal pain) and neurological disorders ( hallucinations and

headache Headache is the symptom of pain in the face, head, or neck. It can occur as a migraine, tension-type headache, or cluster headache. There is an increased risk of depression in those with severe headaches. Headaches can occur as a result ...

). The

median lethal dose In toxicology, the median lethal dose, LD50 (abbreviation for " lethal dose, 50%"), LC50 (lethal concentration, 50%) or LCt50 is a toxic unit that measures the lethal dose of a toxin, radiation, or pathogen. The value of LD50 for a substance is ...

is between 2 and 5 mg/kg of body weight. Symptoms become manifest 8 to 12 hours after ingestion. The amount of these glycoalkaloids in potatoes, for example, varies significantly depending on environmental conditions during their cultivation, the length of storage, and the variety. The average glycoalkaloid concentration is 0.075 mg/g of potato.Zeiger, E. 1998. Solanine and Chaconine. Review of Toxicological Literature. Integrated Laboratory Systems, USA. Solanine has occasionally been responsible for poisonings in people who ate berries from species such as ''

'' or ''

Solanum dulcamara ''Solanum dulcamara'' is a species of vine in the genus '' Solanum'' (which also includes the potato and the tomato) of the family Solanaceae. Common names include bittersweet, bittersweet nightshade, bitter nightshade, blue bindweed, Amara Dul ...

'', or green potatoes. Tropane 2

* Tropanes: The term "tropane" comes from a

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...

in which they are found, '' Atropa'' (the belladonna genus). ''Atropa'' is named after the Greek Fate,

Atropos Atropos (; grc, Ἄτροπος "without turn") or Aisa, in Greek mythology, was one of the three Moirai, goddesses of fate and destiny. Her Roman equivalent was Morta. Atropos was the oldest of the Three Fates, and was known as "the Inf ...

, who cut the thread of life. This nomenclature reflects its toxicity and lethality. They are bicyclic organic nitrogen compounds (

IUPAC The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC ) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations working for the advancement of the chemical sciences, especially by developing nomenclature and terminology. It is ...

nomenclature: 8-methyl-8-azabicyclo .2.1ctane), with the chemical formula of C₈H₁₅N. These alkaloids include, among others, atropine,

cocaine Cocaine (from , from , ultimately from Quechua: ''kúka'') is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant mainly used recreationally for its euphoric effects. It is primarily obtained from the leaves of two Coca species native to South Am ...

, and

. They are found in various species, such as mandrake ('' Mandragora officinarum'' and M. autumnalis ), black henbane or stinking nightshade ('' Hyoscyamus niger''), belladonna (''

''), jimson weed or devil's snare ('' Datura stramonium'') and ''

Brugmansia ''Brugmansia'' is a genus of seven species of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae. They are woody trees or shrubs, with pendulous flowers, and have no spines on their fruit. Their large, fragrant flowers give them their common n ...

'' , as well as many others in the family Solanaceae. Pharmacologically, they are the most powerful known anticholinergics in existence, meaning they inhibit the

neurological Neurology (from el, νεῦρον (neûron), "string, nerve" and the suffix -logia, "study of") is the branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the brain, the spinal c ...

signals transmitted by the

endogenous Endogenous substances and processes are those that originate from within a living system such as an organism, tissue, or cell. In contrast, exogenous substances and processes are those that originate from outside of an organism. For example, ...

neurotransmitter A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a synapse. The cell receiving the signal, any main body part or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell. Neu ...

acetylcholine Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic chemical that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Par ...

. More commonly, they can halt many types of

allergic Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, refer a number of conditions caused by the hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic der ...

reactions. Symptoms of overdose may include dry mouth, dilated pupils,

ataxia Ataxia is a neurological sign consisting of lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements that can include gait abnormality, speech changes, and abnormalities in eye movements. Ataxia is a clinical manifestation indicating dysfunction of ...

, urinary retention, hallucinations,

convulsions A convulsion is a medical condition where the body muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in uncontrolled shaking. Because epileptic seizures typically include convulsions, the term ''convulsion'' is sometimes used as a ...

coma A coma is a deep state of prolonged unconsciousness in which a person cannot be awakened, fails to respond normally to painful stimuli, light, or sound, lacks a normal wake-sleep cycle and does not initiate voluntary actions. Coma patients exhi ...

, and death. Atropine, a commonly used

ophthalmological Ophthalmology ( ) is a surgical subspecialty within medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. An ophthalmologist is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care. Following a medic ...

agent, dilates the pupils and thus facilitates examination of the interior of the eye. In fact, juice from the berries of ''A. belladonna'' were used by Italian courtesans during the

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ide ...

to exaggerate the size of their eyes by causing the dilation of their pupils ("bella donna" means "pretty woman" in Italian). Despite the extreme toxicity of the tropanes, they are useful drugs when administered in extremely small dosages. They can reverse cholinergic poisoning, which can be caused by overexposure to organophosphate

insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed t ...

s and

chemical warfare Chemical warfare (CW) involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare, biological warfare and radiological warfare, which together make up CBRN, the military a ...

agents such as

sarin Sarin (NATO designation GB G-series, "B"">Nerve_agent#G-series.html" ;"title="hort for Nerve agent#G-series">G-series, "B" is an extremely toxic synthetic organophosphorus compound.VX.

Scopolamine Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine, or Devil's Breath, is a natural or synthetically produced tropane alkaloid and anticholinergic drug that is formally used as a medication for treating motion sickness and postoperative nausea and vomi ...

(found in '' Hyoscyamus muticus'' and '' Scopolia carniolica''), is used as an antiemetic against motion sickness or for people suffering from

nausea Nausea is a diffuse sensation of unease and discomfort, sometimes perceived as an urge to vomit. While not painful, it can be a debilitating symptom if prolonged and has been described as placing discomfort on the chest, abdomen, or back of th ...

as a result of receiving

chemotherapy Chemotherapy (often abbreviated to chemo and sometimes CTX or CTx) is a type of cancer treatment that uses one or more anti-cancer drugs (chemotherapeutic agents or alkylating agents) as part of a standardized chemotherapy regimen. Chemother ...

.Sneden, A. The tropane alkaloids. Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Design. Virginia Commonwealth University Evans, W.C. 1979. Tropane alkaloids of the Solanaceae. En: HAWKES, LESTER and SHELDING (eds.). The biology and taxonomy of the Solanaceae. Linn. Soc. Symp. Ser. 7:241-254. Linnean Soc. & Academic Press., London. Scopolamine and hyoscyamine are the most widely used tropane alkaloids in pharmacology and medicine due to their effects on the

parasympathetic nervous system The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the three divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the others being the sympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous system. The enteric nervous system is sometimes considered part o ...

. Atropine has a

stimulant Stimulants (also often referred to as psychostimulants or colloquially as uppers) is an overarching term that covers many drugs including those that increase activity of the central nervous system and the body, drugs that are pleasurable and inv ...

effect on the

central nervous system The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all p ...

and heart, whereas scopolamine has a

sedative A sedative or tranquilliser is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement. They are CNS depressants and interact with brain activity causing its deceleration. Various kinds of sedatives can be distinguished, but ...

effect. These alkaloids cannot be substituted by any other class of compounds, so they are still in demand. This is one of the reasons for the development of an active field of research into the metabolism of the alkaloids, the enzymes involved, and the genes that produce them. Hyoscyamine 6-β-hydroxylase, for example, catalyses the hydroxylation of hyoscyamine that leads to the production of scopolamine at the end of the tropane's biosynthetic pathway. This enzyme has been isolated and the corresponding gene cloned from three species: ''H. niger'', ''A. belladonna'' and '' B. candida''.

Nicotine Nicotine is a naturally produced alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants (most predominantly in tobacco and '' Duboisia hopwoodii'') and is widely used recreationally as a stimulant and anxiolytic. As a pharmaceutical drug, it is use ...

: Nicotine (

nomenclature (''S'')-3-(1-methylpyrrolidin-2-yl) pyridine) is a

pyrrolidine Pyrrolidine, also known as tetrahydropyrrole, is an organic compound with the molecular formula (CH2)4NH. It is a cyclic secondary amine, also classified as a saturated heterocycle. It is a colourless liquid that is miscible with water and most ...

alkaloid produced in large quantities in the

plant (''Nicotiana tabacum''). Edible Solanaceae such as eggplants, tomatoes, potatoes, and peppers also contain nicotine, but at concentrations 100,000 to 1,000,000 times less than tobacco. Nicotine's function in a plant is to act as a defense against

herbivore A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpar ...

s, as it is a very effective

neurotoxin Neurotoxins are toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue (causing neurotoxicity). Neurotoxins are an extensive class of exogenous chemical neurological insultsSpencer 2000 that can adversely affect function in both developing and mature nerv ...

, in particular against

insect Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three pa ...

s. In fact, nicotine has been used for many years as an

, though its use is currently being replaced by synthetic molecules derived from its structure. At low concentrations, nicotine acts as a stimulant in mammals, which causes the dependency in smokers. Like the tropanes, it acts on cholinergic neurons, but with the opposite effect (it is an

agonist An agonist is a chemical that activates a receptor to produce a biological response. Receptors are cellular proteins whose activation causes the cell to modify what it is currently doing. In contrast, an antagonist blocks the action of the ag ...

as opposed to an

antagonist An antagonist is a character in a story who is presented as the chief foe of the protagonist. Etymology The English word antagonist comes from the Greek ἀνταγωνιστής – ''antagonistēs'', "opponent, competitor, villain, enemy, ri ...

). It has a higher specificity for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors than other ACh proteins. Kapsaicyna

Capsaicin Capsaicin (8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) ( or ) is an active component of chili peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus ''Capsicum''. It is a chemical irritant for mammals, including humans, and produces a sensation of burnin ...

: Capsaicin (

nomenclature 8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-''trans''-6-nonenamide) is structurally different from nicotine and the tropanes. It is found in species of the genus ''

'', which includes chilis and habaneros and it is the active ingredient that determines the Scoville rating of these spices. The compound is not noticeably toxic to humans. However, it stimulates specific pain receptors in the majority of mammals, specifically those related to the perception of heat in the

oral mucosa The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane lining the inside of the mouth. It comprises stratified squamous epithelium, termed "oral epithelium", and an underlying connective tissue termed '' lamina propria''. The oral cavity has sometimes been de ...

and other epithelial tissues. When capsaicin comes into contact with these mucosae, it causes a burning sensation little different from a burn caused by fire. Capsaicin affects only mammals, not birds. Pepper seeds can survive the digestive tracts of birds; their fruit becomes brightly coloured once its seeds are mature enough to germinate, thereby attracting the attention of birds that then distribute the seeds. Capsaicin extract is used to make pepper spray, a useful deterrent against aggressive and peaceful mammals.

Distribution

Even though members of the Solanaceae are found on all

continent A continent is any of several large landmasses. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in area to smallest, these seven ...

s except Antarctica, the greatest variety of species are found in

and

. Centers of diversity also occur in

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. With an area of , Australia is the largest country by ...

and

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

. Solanaceae occupy a great number of different

ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syst ...

s, from

desert A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to denudation. About on ...

s to

rainforest Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforest can be classified as tropical rainforest or temperate rainfores ...

s, and are often found in the secondary vegetation that colonizes disturbed areas. In general, plants in this family are of tropical and temperate distribution.

Plant host

The potato tuber moth ('' Phthorimaea operculella'') is an oligophagous insect that prefers to feed on plants of the family Solanaceae, especially the potato plant (''Solanum tuberosum''). Female ''P. operculella'' use the leaves to lay their eggs and the hatched larvae will eat away at the mesophyll of the leaf. After feeding on the foliage, the larvae will then delve down and feed on the tubers and roots of the plant.

Taxonomy

The following taxonomic synopsis of the Solanaceae, including subfamilies, tribes and genera, is based on the most recent

molecular phylogenetics Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to ...

studies of the family:

Cestroideae (Browallioideae)

Browallia americana, the Amethyst Flower (11413416736)

This subfamily is characterised by the presence of pericyclic fibres, an androecium with four or five stamens, frequently didynamous. The basic chromosome numbers are highly variable, from x=7 to x=13. The subfamily consists of eight genera (divided into three tribes) and about 195 species distributed throughout the Americas. The genus ''Cestrum'' is the most important, as it contains 175 of the 195 species in the subfamily. The ''Cestreae'' tribe is unusual because it includes taxa with long chromosomes (from 7.21 to 11.511 µm in length), when the rest of the family generally possesses short chromosomes (for example between 1.5 and 3.52 µm in the Nicotianoideae) * Browallieae Hunz. ** ''

'' L., genus with six species distributed throughout the

Neotropical realm The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone. Definition In bioge ...

Arizona Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...

in the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...

** ''

Streptosolen ''Streptosolen'' is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the family Solanaceae. It is closely related to the genus Browallia, within which it was originally placed. The single species, ''Streptosolen jamesonii'', the marmalade bush or fire ...

'' Miers, monotypic genus native to the Andes * Cestreae tribe Don, three genera of woody plants, generally shrubs ** '' Cestrum'' L., some 175 species distributed throughout the Neotropical realm ** ''

Sessea ''Sessea'' is a genus of 19 accepted species of shrubs, small trees and climbers belonging to the subfamily Cestroideae of the plant family Solanaceae. The flowers of ''Sessea'' are so similar to those of ''Cestrum'' that the genera cannot usuall ...

'' Ruiz & Pav., 19 species from the Andes ** '' Vestia'' Willd., monotypic genus from

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the eas ...

* Salpiglossideae tribe (

Benth. George Bentham (22 September 1800 – 10 September 1884) was an English botanist, described by the weed botanist Duane Isely as "the premier systematic botanist of the nineteenth century". Born into a distinguished family, he initially studie ...

) Hunz. ** ''

Reyesia ''Reyesia'' is a small genus of four species of flowering plants belonging to the subfamily Cestroideae of the nightshade family Solanaceae. It is closely related to the genus '' Salpiglossis'', which provides the ornamental species '' Salpiglos ...

'' Gay, four species, three confined to northern Chile and one in both northern Chile and northern Argentina. ** ''

Salpiglossis ''Salpiglossis'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the subfamily Cestroideae of family Solanaceae. It is closely related to the genus ''Reyesia'', with which it makes up the tribe The term tribe is used in many different contex ...

'' Ruiz & Pav., two species originating from southern South America

Goetzeoideae

This subfamily is characterized by the presence of drupes as fruit and seeds with curved embryos and large fleshy cotyledons. The basic chromosome number is x=13. It includes four genera and five species distributed throughout the

Greater Antilles The Greater Antilles ( es, Grandes Antillas or Antillas Mayores; french: Grandes Antilles; ht, Gwo Zantiy; jam, Grieta hAntiliiz) is a grouping of the larger islands in the Caribbean Sea, including Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, a ...

. Some authors suggest their molecular data indicate the monotypic genera '' Tsoala'' Bosser & D'Arcy should be included in this subfamily, endemic to

Madagascar Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Afric ...

, and '' Metternichia'' to the southeast of

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...

. Goetzeaceae

Airy Shaw Herbert Kenneth Airy Shaw (7 April 1902 – 1985) was a notable English botanist and classicist. Airy Shaw was born at The Mount, Grange Road, Woodbridge, Suffolk to a father serving as Second Master at the Woodbridge Grammar School and a mothe ...

is considered as a synonym of this subfamily. * '' Coeloneurum''

Radlk. Ludwig Adolph Timotheus Radlkofer (19 December 1829, in Munich – 16 February 1927, in Munich), was a Bavarian taxonomist and botanist. Radlkofer became a physician in 1854 and earned a PhD in botany at Jena the following year. He became an ass ...

, monotypic genus endemic to Hispaniola * '' Espadaea'' Rchb., monotypic, from

Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribb ...

* '' Goetzea'' Wydler, includes two species from the Antilles * '' Henoonia''

Griseb. August Heinrich Rudolf Grisebach () was a German botanist and phytogeographer. He was born in Hannover on 17 April 1814 and died in Göttingen on 9 May 1879. Biography Grisebach studied at the Lyceum in Hanover, the cloister-school at Ilfeld, ...

, monotypic, originating in

Nicotianoideae

* Anthocercideae G.Don: This tribe, endemic to Australia, contains 31 species in seven genera. Molecular phylogenetic studies of the tribe indicate it is the sister of ''

,'' and the genera ''Anthocercis, Anthotroche, Grammosolen'', and ''Symonanthus'' are

monophyletic In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic gr ...

. Some characteristics are also thought to be derived from within the tribe, such as the unilocular stamens with semicircular opercula, bracteolate flowers, and berries as fruit. ** ''

Anthocercis ''Anthocercis'', commonly known as tailflower, is a genus of shrubs which are endemic to southern temperate Australia with the center of distribution in the South West Botanical Province of Western Australia.George ''et al.''. (1982) All specie ...

'' Labill., 10 species, Australia ** ''

Anthotroche ''Anthotroche'' is a genus of shrubs in the family Solanaceae. The genus is endemic to Western Australia. Species include: *'' Anthotroche myoporoides'' - Myoporum-like anthotroche C.A.Gardner *'' Anthotroche pannosa'' - Endl. Felted anthotro ...

'' Endl., four species, Australia ** ''

Crenidium ''Crenidium'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. Its native range is Western Australia. Species: * ''Crenidium spinescens'' Haegi References {{Taxonbar, from=Q15935400 Solanaceae Solanaceae genera ...

'' Haegi, monotypic genus, Australia ** ''

Cyphanthera ''Cyphanthera'' is a genus of shrubs in the family Solanaceae. The species, which are endemic to Australia, include: *'' Cyphanthera albicans'' (A.Cunn.) Miers *'' Cyphanthera anthocercidea'' (F.Muell.) Haegi *'' Cyphanthera microphylla'' Mie ...

'' Miers, 9 species, Australia ** '' Duboisia'' R.Br., four species, Australia ** ''

Grammosolen ''Grammosolen'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, ...

'' Haegi, two species, Australia ** ''

Symonanthus ''Symonanthus'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. The genus was circumscribed by Laurence Arnold Robert Haegi in Telopea vol.2 on page 175 in 1981. The genus name of ''Symonanthus'' is in honour of David Eric Sym ...

'' Haegi, two species, Australia * Nicotianeae tribe Dum. ** ''

'' L., genus widely distributed, with 52 American species, 23 Australian, and one African

Petunioideae

Molecular phylogenetics indicates that Petunioideae is the sister

clade A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English ter ...

of the subfamilies with chromosome number x=12 ( Solanoideae and Nicotianoideae). They contain calistegins, alkaloids similar to the tropanes. The androecium is formed of four stamens (rarely five), usually with two different lengths. The basic chromosome number of this subfamily can be x=7, 8, 9 or 11. It consists of 13 genera and some 160 species distributed throughout Central and South America. Molecular data suggest the genera originated in Patagonia. ''Benthamiella'', ''Combera'', and ''Pantacantha'' form a clade that can be categorized as a tribe (Benthamielleae) that should be in the subfamily Goetzeoideae. * '' Benthamiella'' Speg., 12 species native to Patagonia * '' Bouchetia'' Dunal, three neotropical species * ''

Brunfelsia ''Brunfelsia'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to subfamily Petunioideae of the nightshade family Solanaceae. The 50 or so species have been grouped into the three sections: ''Brunfelsia'' (circa 22 species), ''Franciscea'' (circa 18 spe ...

'' L., around 45 species from the neotropics * '' Calibrachoa''

Cerv. Vicente (Vincente) de Cervantes (Ledrada, Salamanca España; 1755 - México; 1829) was a notable Spanish and Mexican physician and botanist. Background Don Vicente Cervantes was a contemporary of Martín Sessé y Lacasta and corresponded with Je ...

ex La Llave & Lex., consists of 32 species from the neotropics. The morphological data suggest this genus should be included within the ''Petunia''. However, the molecular and cytogenetic data indicate both should be kept separate. In fact, ''Calibrachoa'' has a basic chromosome number x=9, while that of ''Petunia'' is x=7. * '' Combera'' Sandw., two species from Patagonia * '' Fabiana'' Ruiz & Pav., 15 species native to the Andes * ''

Hunzikeria ''Hunzikeria'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. Its native range is Mexico and Venezuela. The genus name of ''Hunzikeria'' is in honour of Armando Theodoro Hunziker (1919–2001), an Argentine botanist. He had s ...

'' D'Arcy, three species from the southwest United States and

Mexico Mexico (Spanish language, Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a List of sovereign states, country in the southern portion of North America. It is borders of Mexico, bordered to the north by the United States; to the so ...

* '' Leptoglossis''

, seven species from western South America * '' Nierembergia'' Ruiz & Pav., 21 species from South America * '' Pantacantha'' Speg., monospecific genus from Patagonia * '' Petunia'' ( Juss.) Wijsman, 18 species from South America * ''

Plowmania ''Plowmania'' is a monotypic genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. The only species is ''Plowmania nyctaginoides''. Fully hardy, fast-growing evergreen climber, stems up to long. It has 4-angled stems, pinnate leaves, up ...

'' Hunz. & Subils, monotypic genus from Mexico and Guatemala

Schizanthoideae

The Schizanthoideae include annual and biennial plants with tropane alkaloids, without pericyclic fibres, with characteristic hair and pollen grains. The flowers are zygomorphic. The androecium has two stamens and three staminodes, anther dehiscence is explosive. In terms of fruit type, the Schizanthoidae retain the

plesiomorphic In phylogenetics, a plesiomorphy ("near form") and symplesiomorphy are synonyms for an ancestral character shared by all members of a clade, which does not distinguish the clade from other clades. Plesiomorphy, symplesiomorphy, apomorphy, and ...

fruit form of the family Solanaceae, capsules, which rely on an

anemochorous In Spermatophyte plants, seed dispersal is the movement, spread or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. Plants have limited mobility and rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their seeds, including both abiotic vectors ...

, abiotic form of dispersal. This is present in Schizanthoidae due both to the genetic constraints of early divergence (see below) as well as Schizanthus evolution and presence in open habitats. The embryo is curved. The basic chromosome number is x=10. ''Schizanthus'' is a somewhat atypical genus among the Solanaceae due to its strongly zygomorphic flowers and basic chromosome number. Morphological and molecular data suggest ''Schizanthus'' is a sister genus to the other Solanaceae and diverged early from the rest, probably in the late

Cretaceous The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of ...

or in the early

Cenozoic The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and the current configu ...

, 50 million years ago. The great diversity of flower types within ''Schizanthus'' has been the product of the species' adaptation to the different types of pollinators that existed in the Mediterranean, high alpine, and desert ecosystems then present in Chile and adjacent areas of Argentina. * ''

'' Ruiz & Pav., 12 species originating from Chile.

Schwenckioideae

Annual plants with pericyclic fibres, their flowers are zygomorphic, the androecium has four didynamous stamens or three staminodes; the embryo is straight and short. The basic chromosome number is x=12. It includes four genera and some 30 species distributed throughout South America. * '' Heteranthia'' Nees &

Mart. Carl Friedrich Philipp (Karl Friedrich Philipp) von Martius (17 April 1794 – 13 December 1868) was a German botanist and explorer. Life Martius was born at Erlangen, the son of Prof Ernst Wilhelm Martius, court apothecary. He graduated PhD f ...

, one species from Brazil * '' Melananthus'' Walp., five species from Brazil, Cuba, and Guatemala * '' Protoschwenckia'' Soler , monotypic genus from Bolivia and Brazil, some molecular phylogenetic studies have suggested this genus has an uncertain taxonomic position within the subfamily * '' Schwenckia'' L., 22 species distributed throughout the neotropical regions of America

Solanoideae

* Capsiceae Dumort ** ''

'' L. includes 40 accepted neotropical species ** ''

'' (Dunal) Hassler, some 200 species distributed throughout America and Asia * Datureae G.Don, two genera are perfectly differentiated at both the morphological and molecular levels, ''Brugmansia'' includes tree species, while ''Datura'' contains herbs or shrubs, the latter genus can be divided into three sections: ''Stramonium'', ''Dutra'' and ''Ceratocaulis''. The monotypic genus Trompettia has recently been created to accommodate the Bolivian shrub formerly known as '' Iochroma cardenasianum'' - now known to belong to Datureae and not Physaleae as previously thought. ** ''

'' Persoon, six species from the Andes ** ''

'' L., 12 neotropical species ** '' Trompettia'' J.Dupin, Single species from Andean

Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...

* Hyoscyameae Endl. ** '' Anisodus'' Link, four species from

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...

and the

Himalayas The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 10 ...

** '' Archihyoscyamus'' A.M.Lu, single species from Turkey and Iran. ** '' Atropa'' L., four Euro-Asiatic species ** '' Atropanthe'' Pascher, monotypic genus from China ** '' Hyoscyamus'' L., 10 accepted species distributed from the Mediterranean to China ** '' Physochlaina'' G.Don, 6 accepted Euro-Asiatic species ** ''

Przewalskia ''Przewalskia'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. Its native range is western and central China, Tibet to eastern Himalaya. The genus name of ''Przewalskia'' is in honour of Nikolay Przhevalsky Nikolay Mikh ...

'' Maxim., 2 species from China ** '' Scopolia'' Jacq., disjunct distribution with two European species and two from

East Asia East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea ...

. * Jaboroseae Miers ** ''

'' Juss., genus that includes 23 species from South America. * Solandreae Miers ** Subtribe Juanulloinae consists 10 genera of trees and epiphytic shrubs with a neotropical distribution . Some of these genera (''Dyssochroma'', ''Merinthopodium'' and ''Trianaea'') show a clear dependency on various species of bats both for pollination and dispersion of seeds. *** '' Dyssochroma'' Miers, two species from the south of Brazil *** '' Hawkesiophyton'' Hunz. two species from South America *** '' Juanulloa'' Ruiz & Pav., 11 species from South and Central America *** ''

'' Rich., 9 species from South and Central America *** ''

Merinthopodium ''Merinthopodium'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, ...

'' J. Donn. Sm. three species originating from South America *** ''

Poortmannia ''Poortmannia'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. It is also in Solanoideae subfamily, tribe Solandreae Miers and also subtribe Juanulloinae. The genus has only one known species, ''Poortmannia speciosa'' . Its n ...

'' Drake, one species, from Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (South America) *** ''

Schultesianthus ''Schultesianthus'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. Its native range is from southern Mexico down to Venezuela and Peru. It is also found in Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras and Panamá. The g ...

'' Hunz., eight neotropical species *** '' Trianaea'' Planch. & Linden, six South American species ** Subtribe Solandrinae, a monotypical subtribe, differs from Juanulloinae in that its embryos have incumbent cotyledons and semi-inferior ovaries. ** ''

Solandra ''Solandra'' is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. It is named after the Swedish naturalist Daniel C. Solander. The vines it contains are commonly known as chalice vines and are native to the Caribbean, Mexico an ...

'' Sw., 10 species from the neotropical regions of America * Lycieae Hunz. has three genera of woody plants, which grow in arid or semiarid climates. The cosmopolitan genus ''Lycium'' is the oldest in the tribe and it has the greatest morphological variability. Molecular phylogenetic studies suggest both ''Grabowskia'' and ''Phrodus'' should be included in the ''Lycium'', and this genus, along with ''Nolana'' and ''Sclerophylax'', form a clade (Lyciina), which currently lacks a taxonomic category. The red fleshy berries dispersed by birds are the main type of fruit in ''Lycium''. The different types of fruit in this genus have evolved from the type of berry just mentioned to a drupe with a reduced number of seeds. ** ''

'' Schltdl., three species from South America ** ''

'' L., 83 cosmopolitan species ** '' Phrodus'' Miers, two species endemic to the north of Chile * Mandragoreae (Wettst.) Hunz. & Barboza tribe does not have a defined systematic position according to molecular phylogenetic studies. ** '' Mandragora'' L., two species from Eurasia * Nicandreae Wettst. is a tribe with two South American genera. Molecular phylogenetic studies indicate the genera are not interrelated nor are they related with other genera of the family, so their taxonomic position is uncertain. ** '' Exodeconus'' Raf., six species from western South America ** '' Nicandra'' Adans, one species distributed throughout neotropical regions * Nolaneae Rchb. are mostly herbs and small shrubs with succulent leaves, they have very beautiful flowers that range from white to various shades of blue, their fruit is schizocarpal, giving rise to various nuts. ** '' Nolana'' L., 89 species distributed throughout western South America * Physaleae Miers, is a large tribe that is the sister of Capsiceae. ** Subtribe Iochrominae (Miers) Hunz., a clade within the Physaleae tribe. contains 37 species, mainly distributed in the Andes, assigned to six genera. The members of this subtribe are characterized by being woody shrubs or small trees with attractive tubular or rotated flowers. They also possess great floral diversity, containing every type is present in the family. Their flowers can be red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, or white. The corolla can be tubular to rotated, with a variation of up to eight times in the length of the tube between the various species. *** ''

Acnistus ''Iochroma'' is a genus of about 34 species of shrubs and small trees belonging to the nightshade family Solanaceae. Species are native from Mexico to south Brazil. They are found in the forests of Mexico and South America. Their hummingbird-po ...

'' Schott, one species distributed throughout the neotropics *** '' Dunalia'' Kunth., five species from the Andes *** ''

Eriolarynx ''Eriolarynx'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Solanaceae The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes ...

'' Hunz., three species from Argentina and Bolivia *** '' Iochroma'' Benth., 24 species from the Andes *** ''

Saracha ''Saracha'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. It is in the Solanoideae subfamily. It is native to Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela. The genus name of ''Saracha'' is in honour of Isidoro Saracha (1 ...

'' Ruiz & Pav., two species from the Andes. *** '' Vassobia'' Rusby, two South American species ** Physalinae (Miers) Hunz. , a monophyletic subtribe, contains 10 genera and includes herbs or woody shrubs with yellow, white, or purple solitary axillary flowers pollinated by bees. Once pollination occurs, the corolla falls and the calyx expands until it entirely covers the boll that is developing (the calyx is called accrescent). In many species, the calyx turns yellow or orange on maturity. The berries contain many greenish to yellow-orange seeds, often with red or purple highlights. *** '' Brachistus'' Miers, three species from Mexico and Central America *** ''

Chamaesaracha ''Chamaesaracha'' is a genus of perennial herbs in the nightshade family which are known commonly as five eyes. There are around nine species of five eyes, and they are native to the southwestern and western United States and parts of Mexico. Th ...

'' (A.Gray) Benth. & Hook., has 10 species from Mexico and Central America. *** '' Darcyanthus'', genus with just 1 species originating in Bolivia and Peru. *** '' Leucophysalis'' Rydberg, includes 3 species from the south west of the United States and Mexico. *** '' Margaranthus'' Schlecht., with 1 species from Mexico. *** ''

Oryctes ''Oryctes'' is the most economically important genus of rhinoceros beetles in the subfamily Dynastinae ( family: Scarabaeidae), since it includes a notorious insect pest of palms. Species Currently, 42 species are in the genus, including: * ...

'' S. Watson, monotypic genus from the south west of the United States. *** '' Physalis'' L., the largest genus of the subtribe, with 85 species distributed through the tropical regions of the Americas and with 1 species in

. *** ''

Quincula ''Quincula'' is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae. The sole species it contains, ''Quincula lobata'', is commonly known as Chinese lantern, lobed groundcherry, or purple groundcherry. This plant is also c ...

'' Raf. with just 1 species from the south west of the United States and from Mexico. *** '' Trozelia'' Raf. with 2 species from Ecuador and Peru. *** '' Tzeltalia'', genus segregated from ''Physalis'', with 2 species distributed throughout Mexico and

Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by Hon ...

. *** '' Witheringia'' L' Heritier, genus with 15 species from neotropical regions. ** Subtribe Salpichroinae, this is a subtribe of Physaleae that includes 16 American species distributed in 1 genera: *** '' Nectouxia'' Kunth., monotypic genus that is endemic to Mexico. *** ''

Salpichroa ''Salpichroa'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. Its native range is Western and Southern South America to Southern Brazil. Species Species: *'' Salpichroa dependens'' *'' Salpichroa diffusa'' *'' Salpichroa ...

'' Miers, genus with 15 species from the Andes and other regions of South America. ** Subtribe Withaninae, is a subtribe of Physaleae with a broad distribution, including 9 genera: *** '' Archiphysalis'' Kuang, with 3 species from China and Japan. *** '' Athenaea'' Sendtn., which includes 7 species from Brazil. *** ''

Aureliana :''See Aureliana Civitas'' for the Latin name of Orléans.'' ''Aureliana'' is a genus of plants in the family Solanaceae The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines ...

'' Sendtn., with 5 species from South America. *** '' Cuatresia'' Hunz., with 11 neotropical species. Molecular studies indicate that this genus, along with ''Deprea'' and ''Larnax'' has an uncertain taxonomic position. *** ''

Deprea ''Deprea'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae The Solanaceae , or nightshades, are a family of flowering plants that ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and in ...

'' Raf., with 6 neotropical species. *** '' Larnax'' Miers, many taxonomists consider it to be a synonym for ''Deprea'', contains 22 species native to the Andes. *** '' Mellissia'' Hook. f., monotypic genus from

Saint Helena Saint Helena () is a British overseas territory located in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a remote volcanic tropical island west of the coast of south-western Africa, and east of Rio de Janeiro in South America. It is one of three constit ...

with the common name Saint Helena boxwood (genus recently subsumed in ''Withania'') *** '' Nothocestrum'' A.Gray with 4 species from Hawaii. *** '' Physaliastrum'' Makino, with 10 Asiatic species (genus recently subsumed in ''Withania''). *** '' Tubocapsicum'' (Wettst.) Makino, with just one species endemic to China. *** '' Withania'' Pauq., with 10 species native to the

Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; es, :es:Canarias, Canarias, ), also known informally as the Canaries, are a Spanish Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community and archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, in Macaronesia. At their closest point to ...

, Africa and

Nepal Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne, सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is ma ...

. * Tribe Solaneae. The genera ''Cyphomandra'' Sendtn., ''Discopodium'' Hochst., ''Normania'' Lowe, ''Triguera'' Cav. and ''Lycopersicum'' Mill have been transferred to ''Solanum''. The subtribe is therefore composed of two genera: ** '' Jaltomata'' Schltdl., which contains 50 neotropical species. ** '' Solanum'' L., the largest genus in the family and one of the broadest of the angiosperms, with 1,328 species distributed across the whole world.

''Incertae sedis''

The following genera have not yet been placed in any of the recognized subfamilies within the solanaceas ('' incertae sedis''). * '' Duckeodendron'' Kuhlmannb, monotypic genus from the

Amazon rainforest The Amazon rainforest, Amazon jungle or ; es, Selva amazónica, , or usually ; french: Forêt amazonienne; nl, Amazoneregenwoud. In English, the names are sometimes capitalized further, as Amazon Rainforest, Amazon Forest, or Amazon Jungle. ...

. * '' Parabouchetia'' Baillon, poorly-known, monotypic genus from

. * ''

Pauia ''Pauia'' is a monotypic genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. It only contains one known species, ''Pauia belladonna'' Deb & Ratna Dutta It is native to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the Eastern Himalaya in India. T ...

'' Deb. & Dutta, monotypic genus from

Assam Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...

and

Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh (, ) is a state in Northeastern India. It was formed from the erstwhile North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) region, and became a state on 20 February 1987. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south. It shares ...

in N.E.

Genera and distribution of species

The Solanaceae contain 98 genera and some 2,700 species. Despite this immense richness of species, they are not uniformly distributed between the genera. The eight most important genera contain more than 60% of the species, as shown in the table below. ''Solanum'' – the genus that typifies the family - includes nearly 50% of the total species of the solanaceas.

Economic importance

The family Solanaceae contains such important food species as the potato ('' Solanum tuberosum''), the tomato ('' Solanum lycopersicum''), the pepper ('' Capsicum annuum'') and the aubergine or eggplant ('' Solanum melongena''). ''

Nicotiana tabacum ''Nicotiana tabacum'', or cultivated tobacco, is an annually grown herbaceous plant of the ''Nicotiana'' genus. The plant is tropical in origin, is commonly grown throughout the world, and is often found in cultivation. It grows to heights be ...

,'' originally from South America, is now cultivated throughout the world to produce tobacco. Many solanaceas are important weeds in various parts of the world. Their importance lies in the fact that they can host pathogens or diseases of the cultivated plants, therefore their presence increases the loss of yield or the quality of the harvested product. An example of this can be seen with ''

Acnistus arborescens ''Iochroma arborescens'' is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Iochroma'', belonging to the nightshade family Solanaceae. Formerly it was considered the single species in the monotypic genus '' Acnistus''. Common names include galliner ...

'' and ''Browalia americana'' that host

thrips Thrips (order Thysanoptera) are minute (mostly long or less), slender insects with fringed wings and unique asymmetrical mouthparts. Different thrips species feed mostly on plants by puncturing and sucking up the contents, although a few are ...

, which cause damage to associated cultivated plants,Masis, C. & Madrigal, R. 1994. Lista preliminar de malezas hospedantes de Thrips (Thysanoptera) que dañan al ''Chrysanthemum morifolium'' en el valle central de Costa Rica. Agronomía Costarricense 18(1): 99-101. 1994 and certain species of ''Datura'' that play host to various types of virus that are later transmitted to cultivated solanaceas.Ormeño, J., Sepúlveda R., Rojas, R. Malezas del género ''Datura'' como factor epidemiológico del virus del mosaico de la alfalfa (amv), virus del mosaico del pepino (cmv) y virus y de la papa (pvy) en Solanáceas cultivadas. Agricultura técnica Vol. 66, Nº. 4, 2006, 333-34
Summary in Spanish
Some species of weeds such as, ''Solanum mauritianum'' in South Africa represent such serious ecological and economic problems that studies are being carried out with the objective of developing a biological control through the use of insects.Pedrosa-Macedo, J., Olckers, T. & Vitorino, M. 2003. Phytophagous arthropods associated with ''Solanum mauritianum'' Scopoli (Solanaceae) in the first Plateau of Paraná, Brazil: a cooperative project on biological control of weeds between Brazil and South Africa. Neotrop. Entomol. 32: 519-522
Article in English, with a summary in Portuguese
A wide variety of plant species and their cultivars belonging to the Solanaceae are grown as ornamental trees, shrubs, annuals and herbaceous perennials
/ref> Examples include ''Brugmansia x candida'' ("Angel's Trumpet") grown for its large pendulous trumpet-shaped flowers, or ''Brunfelsia latifolia'', whose flowers are very fragrant and change colour from violet to white over a period of 3 days. Other shrub species that are grown for their attractive flowers are ''Lycianthes rantonnetii'' (Blue Potato Bush or Paraguay Nightshade) with violet-blue flowers and '' Nicotiana glauca'' ("Tree Tobacco") Other solanaceous species and genera that are grown as ornamentals are the petunia ''(Petunia × hybrida)'', ''

, Solanum, Cestrum,'' ''Calibrachoa × hybrida'' and ''

.'' There is even a hybrid between ''Petunia'' and ''Calibrachoa'' (which constitutes a new nothogenus called ''× Petchoa'' G. Boker & J. Shaw) that is being sold as an ornamental.Shaw, J. 2007. A new hybrid genus for ''Calibrachoa'' × ''Petunia'' (Solanaceae). HANBURYANA 2: 50–5

/ref>The Value of Growing Petchoa SuperCal®. Ornamental News Oct 25 2012
/ref> Many other species, in particular those that produce alkaloids, are used in pharmacology and medicine ''(

, Hyoscyamus'', and ''

'').

Solanaceae and the genome

Many of the species belonging to this family, among them tobacco and the tomato, are model organisms that are used for research into fundamental biological questions. One of the aspects of the solanaceas'

genomics Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dim ...

is an international project that is trying to understand how the same collection of genes and proteins can give rise to a group of organisms that are so morphologically and ecologically different. The first objective of this project was to sequence the

genome In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding ...

of the tomato. In order to achieve this each of the 12

s of the tomato's haploid genome was assigned to different sequencing centres in different countries. So chromosomes 1 and 10 were sequenced in the United States, 3 and 11 in China, 2 in

Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...

, 4 in Britain, 5 in India, 7 in France, 8 in Japan, 9 in Spain and 12 in Italy. The sequencing of the

mitochondria A mitochondrion (; ) is an organelle found in the cells of most Eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and fungi. Mitochondria have a double membrane structure and use aerobic respiration to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is used ...

l genome was carried out in Argentina and the

chloroplast A chloroplast () is a type of membrane-bound organelle known as a plastid that conducts photosynthesis mostly in plant and algal cells. The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight, converts it, and stores it i ...

genome was sequenced in the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are located primarily in Europe, Europe. The union has a total area of ...

.International Tomato Sequencing Project Home
/ref>International Solanaceae Genomics Project (SOL), Systems Approach to Diversity and Adaptation.
/ref>

References

* * * * Dimitri, M. 1987. Enciclopedia Argentina de Agricultura y Jardinería. Tomo I. Descripción de plantas cultivadas. Editorial ACME S.A.C.I., Buenos Aires. * * Hunziker, Armando T. 2001. The Genera of Solanaceae. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag K.G., Ruggell, Liechtenstein. .

External links

Sol Genomics Network

Solanaceae Network - pictures of plants

Solanaceae Source
- A worldwide taxonomic monograph of all species in the genus Solanum.
Solanaceae of Chile, by Chileflora

i
L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.
http://delta-intkey.com
Solanaceae
in USDA Plants Database.

Flowers in Israel
''SOL Genomics Network'', Universidad de Cornell

Imagines de various species of Solanaceae

Solanaceae de Chile, by Chileflora

Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo
(Article in Spanish by Germán Octavio López Riquelme regarding the biology, nutrition, culture and medical aspects of Chile.
Solanaceae Resources on the Web
* Jäpelt RB, Jakobsen J (2013) Vitamin D in plants: a review of occurrence, analysis, and biosynthesis. Front Plant Sci 4, No. 13
-- Note the reference to higher cholesterol levels (and consequent Vitamin D3 levels) in family ''Solanaceae''
{{Authority control Asterid families