Overview
Sociotechnical refers to the interrelatedness of ''social'' and ''technical'' aspects of anPrinciples
Some of the central principles of sociotechnical theory were elaborated in a seminal paper byResponsible autonomy
Sociotechnical theory was pioneering for its shift in emphasis, a shift towards considering teams or groups as the primary unit of analysis and not the individual. Sociotechnical theory pays particular attention to internal supervision and leadership at the level of the "group" and refers to it as "responsible autonomy". The overriding point seems to be that having the simple ability of individual team members being able to perform their function is not the only predictor of group effectiveness. There are a range of issues in team cohesion research, for example, that are answered by having the regulation and leadership internal to a group or team. These, and other factors, play an integral and parallel role in ensuring successful teamwork which sociotechnical theory exploits. The idea of semi-autonomous groups conveys a number of further advantages. Not least among these, especially in hazardous environments, is the often felt need on the part of people in the organisation for a role in a small primary group. It is argued that such a need arises in cases where the means for effective communication are often somewhat limited. As Carvalho states, this is because "...operators use verbal exchanges to produce continuous, redundant and recursive interactions to successfully construct and maintain individual and mutual awareness...". The immediacy and proximity of trusted team members makes it possible for this to occur. The coevolution of technology and organizations brings with it an expanding array of new possibilities for novel interaction. Responsible autonomy could become more distributed along with the team(s) themselves. The key to responsible autonomy seems to be to design an organization possessing the characteristics of small groups whilst preventing the "silo-thinking" and "stovepipe" neologisms of contemporary management theory. In order to preserve "...intact the loyalties on which the small group epend..the system as a whole eeds to containits bad in a way thatAdaptability
Carvajal states that "the rate at which uncertainty overwhelms an organisation is related more to its internal structure than to the amount of environmental uncertainty". Sitter in 1997 offered two solutions for organisations confronted, like the military, with an environment of increased (and increasing) complexity: "The first option is to restore the fit with the external complexity by an increasing internal complexity. ...This usually means the creation of more staff functions or the enlargement of staff-functions and/or the investment in vertical information systems". Vertical information systems are often confused for "network enabled capability" systems (NEC) but an important distinction needs to be made, which Sitter et al. propose as their second option: "...the organisation tries to deal with the external complexity by 'reducing' the internal control and coordination needs. ...This option might be called the strategy of 'simple organisations and complex jobs'". This all contributes to a number of unique advantages. Firstly is the issue of "human redundancy" in which "groups of this kind were free to set their own targets, so that aspiration levels with respect to production could be adjusted to the age and stamina of the individuals concerned". Human redundancy speaks towards the flexibility, ubiquity and pervasiveness of resources within NEC. The second issue is that of complexity. Complexity lies at the heart of many organisational contexts (there are numerous organizational paradigms that struggle to cope with it). Trist and Bamforth (1951) could have been writing about these with the following passage: "A very large variety of unfavourable and changing environmental conditions is encountered ... many of which are impossible to predict. Others, though predictable, are impossible to alter." Many type of organisations are clearly motivated by the appealing "industrial age", rational principles of "factory production", a particular approach to dealing with complexity: "In the factory a comparatively high degree of control can be exercised over the complex and moving "figure" of a production sequence, since it is possible to maintain the "ground" in a comparatively passive and constant state". On the other hand, many activities are constantly faced with the possibility of "untoward activity in the 'ground'" of the 'figure-ground' relationship" The central problem, one that appears to be at the nub of many problems that "classic" organisations have with complexity, is that "The instability of the 'ground' limits the applicability ... of methods derived from the factory". In Classic organisations, problems with the moving "figure" and moving "ground" often become magnified through a much larger social space, one in which there is a far greater extent of hierarchical task interdependence. For this reason, the semi-autonomous group, and its ability to make a much more fine grained response to the "ground" situation, can be regarded as "agile". Added to which, local problems that do arise need not propagate throughout the entire system (to affect the workload and quality of work of many others) because a complex organization doing simple tasks has been replaced by a simpler organization doing more complex tasks. The agility and internal regulation of the group allows problems to be solved locally without propagation through a larger social space, thus increasing tempo.Whole tasks
Another concept in sociotechnical theory is the "whole task". A whole task "has the advantage of placing responsibility for the ... task squarely on the shoulders of a single, small, face-to-face group which experiences the entire cycle of operations within the compass of its membership." The Sociotechnical embodiment of this principle is the notion of minimal critical specification. This principle states that, "While it may be necessary to be quite precise about what has to be done, it is rarely necessary to be precise about how it is done". This is no more illustrated by the antithetical example of "working to rule" and the virtual collapse of any system that is subject to the intentional withdrawal of human adaptation to situations and contexts. The key factor in minimally critically specifying tasks is the responsible autonomy of the group to decide, based on local conditions, how best to undertake the task in a flexible adaptive manner. This principle is isomorphic with ideas likeMeaningfulness of tasks
Effects-based operations and the notion of a "whole task", combined with adaptability and responsible autonomy, have additional advantages for those at work in the organization. This is because "for each participant the task has total significance and dynamic closure" as well as the requirement to deploy a multiplicity of skills and to have the responsible autonomy in order to select when and how to do so. This is clearly hinting at a relaxation of the myriad of control mechanisms found in more classically designed organizations. Greater interdependence (through diffuse processes such as globalisation) also bring with them an issue of size, in which "the scale of a task transcends the limits of simple spatio-temporal structure. By this is meant conditions under which those concerned can complete a job in one place at one time, i.e., the situation of the face-to-face, or singular group". In other words, in classic organisations the "wholeness" of a task is often diminished by multiple group integration and spatiotemporal disintegration. The group based form of organization design proposed by sociotechnical theory combined with new technological possibilities (such as the internet) provide a response to this often forgotten issue, one that contributes significantly to joint optimisation.Topics
Sociotechnical system
A sociotechnical system is the term usually given to any instantiation of socio and technical elements engaged in goal directed behaviour. Sociotechnical systems are a particular expression of sociotechnical theory, although they are not necessarily one and the same thing. Sociotechnical systems theory is a mixture of sociotechnical theory, joint optimisation and so forth and general systems theory. The term sociotechnical system recognises that organizations have boundaries and that transactions occur within the system (and its sub-systems) and between the wider context and dynamics of the environment. It is an extension of Sociotechnical Theory which provides a richer descriptive and conceptual language for describing, analysing and designing organisations. A Sociotechnical System, therefore, often describes a 'thing' (an interlinked, systems based mixture of people, technology and their environment). Social technical means that technology, which by definition, should not be allowed to be the controlling factor when new work systems are implemented. So in order to be classified as 'Sociotechnical', equal attention must be paid to providing a high quality and satisfying work environment for employees. The Tavistock researchers, presented that employees who will be using the new and improved system, should be participating in determining the required quality of working life improvements. Participative socio‐technical design can be achieved by in‐depth interviews, questionnaires and collection of data. To approach system implementation with a sociotechnical systems perspective will, therefore, ensure that created systems are meaningful to all engaged actors. To achieve this, a human-centred stance is required, recognising that organisations are dynamic and subsist from moment-to-moment. It is possible to observe the practice of others and consider it in relation to our own contextual experiences and desires, however, attempts to copy practice from one unique context to another are unlikely to yield satisfactory results. Using relevant data collection methods prior to the design of the system and creating a group of internal stakeholders to assist in interpretation of results, can ensure that these systems are successful in practice. Participative socio-technical design can be conducted through in-depth interviews, the collection of statistics and the analysis of relevant documents. These will provide important comparative data that can help approve or disprove the chosen hypotheses. A common approach to participative design is, whenever possible, to use a democratically selected user design group as the key information collectors and decision makers. The design group is backed by a committee of senior staff who can lay the foundations and subsequently oversee the project. Alter describes sociotechnical analysis and design methods to not be a strong point in the information systems practice. The aim of socio-technical designs is to optimise and join both social and technical systems. However, the problem is that of the technical and social system along with the work system and joint optimisation are not defined as they should be.Future analysis
Flexibility and speed are the two main pillars for future analysis for survival. To transform a business organization, the mindset must first be changed, as companies in the future will have to find a balance between four extremes: • Hierarchies versus networks • Profit versus meaningfulness • Control versus empowerment • Planning versus experiments The future of socio-technical design will continue to be of interest to researchers and therefore will adapt overtime to meet the ever-changing climate. New socio-technical approaches in information systems have endeavoured to overcome the shortcomings of the old approaches, through relying on theories from the social sciences. (Social science is the scientific study of human society and social relationships i.e. how people interact with each other.) Although structures are changing within the industry, companies, and managers, need to be dedicated to motivation and recognise what is essential to achieve this. Employees, their rights and needs, must always be given a high priority.Sustainability
Standalone, incremental improvements are not sufficient to address current, let alone future sustainability challenges. These challenges will require deep changes of sociotechnical systems. Theories on innovation systems; sustainable innovations; system thinking and design; and sustainability transitions, among others, have attempted to describe potential changes capable of shifting development towards more sustainable directions. Sociotechnical perspectives also form a crucial role in the creation of systems that have long term sustainability. In the development of new systems, the consideration of sociotechnical factors from the perspectives of the affected stakeholders ensures that a sustainable system is created which is both engaging and benefits everyone involved. Any organisation that tries into becoming sustainable must take into consideration the many dimensions - financial, ecological and (socio-)technical. However, for many stakeholders the main aim of sustainability is to be economically viable. Without long term economic sustainability, the very existence of the organisation’s existence could come under question, potentially shutting the business down.Utilisation of new technology
The utilization of new technology within an organization Welch, C. (2020) says “utilization of disruptive, more advanced technologies requires consideration from multiple perspectives taking into account the longer-term as well as potential short-term gains” he points out that any new technology has its risks to an organization and without it being properly investigated it could be highly disruptive. So organizations need to clearly investigate new technologies from all perspectives within it as if the technology shows promise within one part of the organization it could be highly disruptive to other sections of the organization. Thus by properly investigating the technologies' effect on the organization they can see the potential before utilizing it. Which could save the organization from utilizing a technology that could have destroyed them.Autonomous work teams
Autonomous work teams also called self-managed teams, are an alternative to traditional assembly line methods. Rather than having a large number of employees each do a small operation to assemble a product, the employees are organized into small teams, each of which is responsible for assembling an entire product. These teams are self-managed, and are independent of one another. In the mid-1970s, Pehr Gyllenhammar created his new “dock assembly” work system atJob enrichment
Job enlargement
Job enlargement means increasing the scope of aJob rotation
Motivation
Motivation in psychology refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. Motivation is a temporal and dynamic state that should not be confused with personality or emotion. Motivation is having the desire and willingness to do something. A motivated person can be reaching for a long-term goal such as becoming a professional writer or a more short-term goal like learning how to spell a particular word. Personality invariably refers to more or less permanent characteristics of an individual's state of being (e.g., shy, extrovert, conscientious). As opposed to motivation, emotion refers to temporal states that do not immediately link to behavior (e.g., anger, grief, happiness). With the view that socio-technical design is by which intelligence and skill combined with emerging technologies could improve the work-life balance of employees, it is also believed that the aim is to achieve both a safer and more pleasurable workplace as well as to see greater democracy in society. The achievement of these aims would therefore lead to increased motivation of employees and would directly and positively influence their ability to express ideas. Enid Mumford's work on redesigning designing human systems also expressed that it is the role of the facilitator to “keep the members interested and motivated toward the design task, to help them resolve any conflicts”.Mumford, E. 2003Process improvement
Process improvement in organizational development is a series of actions taken to identify, analyze and improve existing processes within anTask analysis
Job design
Deliberations
Deliberations are key units of analysis in non-linear, knowledge work. They are 'choice points' that move knowledge work forward. As originated and defined by Cal Pava (1983) in a second-generation development of STS theory, deliberations are patterns of exchange and communication to reduce the equivocality of a problematic issue; for example, for systems engineering work, what features to develop in new software. Deliberations are not discrete decisions—they are a more continuous context for decisions. They have 3 aspects: topics, forums, and participants.Work System Theory (WST) and Work System Method (WSM)
The WST and WSM simplifies the conceptualization of traditional complicated socio-technical system (STS) approach (Alter, 2015). Extending the prior research on STS which divides social and technical aspects; WST combines the two perspectives in a work system and outlines the framework for WSM which considers work system as the system of interest and proposes solutions accordingly (Alter, 2015). The Work System Theory (WST) and Work System Method (WSM) are both forms of socio-technical systems but in the form of work systems. Also, the Work System Method encourages the use of both socio-technical ideas and values when it comes to IS development, use and implementation.Evolution of socio-technical systems
The evolution of socio-technical design has seen its development from being approached as a social system exclusively. The realisation of the joint optimisation of social and technical systems was later realised. It was divided into sections where primary work which looks into principles and description, and how to incorporate technical designs on a macrosocial level.Benefits of seeing sociotechnical systems through a work system lens
Analysing and designing sociotechnical systems from a work system perspective and eliminates the artificial distinction of the social system from the technical system. This also eliminates the idea of joint optimization. By using a work system lens in can bring many benefits, such as: * Viewing the work system as a whole, making it easier to discuss and analyse * More organised approach by even outlining basic understanding of a work system * A readily usable analysis method making it more adaptable for performing analysis of a work system * Does not require guidance by experts and researchers *Reinforces the idea that a work system exists to produce a product(s)/service(s) *Easier to theorize potential staff reductions, job roles changing and reorganizations *Encourages motivation and good will while reducing the stress from monitoring *Conscientious that documentation and practice may differProblems to overcome
* Difference in cultures across the world * Data theft of company information and networked systems * "Big Brother" effect on employees * Hierarchical imbalance between managers and lower staff * Persuading peoples old attitude of 'instant fixes' without any real thought of structureSocial network / structure
The social network perspective first started in 1920 at Harvard University within the Sociology Department. Within information systems social networks have been used to study behaviour of teams, organisations and Industries. Social network perspective is useful for studying some of the emerging forms of social or organisational arrangements and the roles of ICT.Social media and Artificial Intelligence
Recent work on Artificial Intelligence considers large Sociotechnical Systems, such as social networks and online marketplaces, as agents whose behaviour can be purposeful and adaptive. The behaviour of recommender systems can therefore be analysed in the language and framework of sociotechnical systems, leading also to a new perspective for their legal regulation.Multi-directional inheritance
Multi-directional inheritance is the premise that work systems inherit their purpose, meaning and structure from the organisation and reflect the priorities and purposes of the organisation that encompasses them. Fundamentally, this premise includes crucial assumptions about sequencing, timescales, and precedence. The purpose, meaning and structure can derive from multiple contexts and once obtained it can be passed on to the sociotechnical systems that emerge throughout the organisation.Sociological perspective on sociotechnical systems
A 1990s research interest in social dimensions of IS directed to relationship among IS development, uses, and resultant social and organizational changes offered fresh insight into the emerging role of ICT within differing organizational context; drawing directly on sociological theories of institution. This sociotechnical research has informed if not shaped IS scholarship. Sociological theories have offered a solid basis upon which emerging sociotechnical research built.ETHICS history
The ETHICS (Effective Technical and Human Implementation of Computer Systems) process has been used successfully by Mumford in a variety of projects since its idea conception from the Turners Asbestos Cement project. After forgetting a vital request from the customer to discuss and potentially fix the issues found with the current organisation, she gave her advice on making a system. The system was not received well and Mumford was told they already had been using a similar system. This is when she realised a participative based approach would benefit many future projects. Enid Mumfords ETHICS development was a push from her to remind those in the field that research doesn't always need to be done on things of current interest and following the immediate trends over your current research is not always the way forward. A reminder that work should always be finished and we should never “write them off with no outcome.” as she said.Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Hegel, a political philosopher, has written a lot on the subject. He separated contracts into contracts of gift and contracts of exchange. The employment contract can be the contract of exchange. Hegel's option of the existence of a contract, that it doesn't matter if it is formal or informal, implies that the parties are able to recognise each other as people and the owners of something that has value. This article traces the history of socio‐technical design, emphasizing the set of values it embraces, the people espousing its theory and the organizations that practise it. Its role in the implementation of computer systems and its impact in a number of different countries are stressed. It also shows its relationship with action research, as a humanistic set of principles aimed at increasing human knowledge while improving practice in work situations. Its evolution in the 1960s and 1970s evidencing improved working practices and joint agreements between workers and management are contrasted with the much harsher economic climate of the 1980s and 1990s when such principled practices, with one or two notable exceptions, gave way to lean production, downsizing and cost cutting in a global economy, partly reflecting the impact of information and communications technology. Different future scenarios are discussed where socio‐technical principles might return in a different guise to humanize the potential impact of technology in a world of work where consistent organizational and economic change are the norm.Laudon & Laudon
Kenneth C. Laudon and Jane P. Laudon are academics and practitioners in the field of information systems. In organizational change, their textbook approach to teaching the management of information systems is based on the sociotechnical view of systems. This view asserts that “optimal organizational performance is achieved by jointly optimizing both the social and technical systems used in production. Thus, they state that the performance of a system is optimized when both the technology and the organization mutually adjust to one another until a satisfactory fit is obtained.See also
* Complex systems * Cybernetics * Feedback *References
Further reading
* Kenyon B. De Greene (1973). ''Sociotechnical systems: factors in analysis, design, and management''. * Jose Luis Mate and Andres Silva (2005). ''Requirements Engineering for Sociotechnical Systems''. * Enid Mumford (1985). ''Sociotechnical Systems Design: Evolving Theory and Practice''. * William A. Pasmore and John J. Sherwood (1978). ''Sociotechnical Systems: A Sourcebook''. * William A. Pasmore (1988). ''Designing Effective Organizations: The Sociotechnical Systems Perspective''. * Pascal Salembier, Tahar Hakim Benchekroun (2002). ''Cooperation and Complexity in Sociotechnical Systems''. * Sawyer, S. and Jarrahi, M.H. (2014) ''The Sociotechnical Perspective: Information Systems and Information Technology'', Volume 2 (Computing Handbook Set, Third Edition,) edited by Heikki Topi and Allen Tucker. Chapman and Hall/CRC. , http://sawyer.syr.edu/publications/2013/sociotechnical%20chapter.pdf * James C. Taylor and David F. Felten (1993). ''Performance by Design: Sociotechnical Systems in North America''. * Eric Trist and H. Murray ed. (1993).''The Social Engagement of Social Science, Volume II: The Socio-Technical Perspective''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.http://www.moderntimesworkplace.com/archives/archives.html * James T. Ziegenfuss (1983). '' Patients' Rights and Organizational Models: Sociotechnical Systems Research on mental health programs''. * Hongbin Zha (2006). '' Interactive Technologies and Sociotechnical Systems: 12th International Conference, VSMM 2006, Xi'an, China, October 18–20, 2006, Proceedings''. * Trist, E., & Labour, O. M. o. (1981). The evolution of socio-technical systems: A conceptual framework and an action research program: Ontario Ministry of Labour, Ontario Quality of Working Life Centre. * Amelsvoort, P., & Mohr, B. (Co-Eds.) (2016). "Co-Creating Humane and Innovative Organizations: Evolutions in the Practice of Socio-Technical System Design": Global STS-D Network Press *Pava, C., 1983. Managing New Office Technology. Free Press, New York, NY.External links
* * JP Vos