Social class in Sri Lanka
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Social class in Sri Lanka is often described as casteless, though
caste Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultura ...
is still found on the island in both a symbolic and a practical sense. Caste is also used in an analogous sense to refer to the new social class divisions that have appeared in recent decades. The combination of ethnic
nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: The ...
movements that saw caste as an island-wide dividing tool, strong emphasis on providing access to education and healthcare regardless of background, and historic lack of
discrimination Discrimination is the act of making unjustified distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong. People may be discriminated on the basis of race, gender, age, relig ...
among the colonial civil service played a factor in eradicating the caste system in most sectors of the island's society. Although the
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
culture actively fought against all forms of
class discrimination Class discrimination, also known as classism, is prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes individual attitudes, behaviors, systems of policies and practices that are set up to benefit the upper class at the expense ...
, many Buddhist organizations used caste as a method to extract surplus from temple property.


History


Lanka


Caste system

Buddhism rejects casteism as a fundamental principle of its worldview, and this had an effect on reducing the severity of the caste system on the island. Notably, the highest caste group in both communities of the island also formed the popular majority for both communities. The caste systems in Sri Lanka were organized in a similar manner to the Jāti systems found in South India. The history of the caste system in Sri Lanka is unclear since there is very little historical evidence and many research carried out into the subject have been criticized as being biased. Caste positions did not correlate with wealth. Goyigama was the most common caste in the Sinhlaese community numbering around 50%. These people were basically landowning farmers but had monopolized the high positions in politics and royal courts. Vellala is the term used for the similar community among Tamils. Brahmins did not have as much influence on the island as on the mainland, and the most politically influential caste belongs to the farmers. The documented history of the island begins with the arrival of
Prince Vijaya According to the ''Mahāvaṃsa'' chronicle, Prince Vijaya (c. 543–505 BCE) was the first Sinhalese monarchy, Sinhalese king. Legends and records from both Indian and Sri Lanka sources say that he along with several hundred followers came to ...
from India. The island was reportedly inhabited by four tribes at that time: the Dewa, Nagas, Yakkas and Raksha. Although the origin of Sri Lankan communities is unclear,
genetic studies on Sinhalese Genetic studies on the Sinhalese is part of population genetics investigating the origins of the Sinhalese population. All studies agree that there is a significant relationship between the Sinhalese and the Bengalis and South Indian Tamils, and ...
have shown that most of the Sinhala community is genetically related to the South Indians and
Bengalis Bengalis (singular Bengali bn, বাঙ্গালী/বাঙালি ), also rendered as Bangalee or the Bengali people, are an Indo-Aryan peoples, Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the ...
. About half of the Sinhalese population are ''Govigama''. Of the three native tribes, it is believed that the Dewa are part of the Sinhalese castes. Ancient Sri Lankan texts, such as the ''Pujavaliya'', ''Sadharmaratnavaliya'', ''Yogaratnakaraya'' and inscriptions, show that a fourfold caste category namely ''Raja, Bamunu, Velanda and Govi'' existed among the Sinhalese. Evidence of this hierarchy can be seen during the 18th century British-Kandyan period, indicating its continuation even after the Sri Lankan monarchy. Colonialism and foreign intervention in the dynastic conflicts of the island throughout history has also influenced the caste system, some suggesting even a re-arrangement of the occupational castes. At present 13 castes are commonly found among the Sinhala viz. Radala, Govigama,
Bathgama Bathgama a Sri Lankan caste predominantly in the Kandyan provinces, the traditional occupation of which was the cultivation of rice paddy. Hence the name Bath (rice) and Gama (village) in the Sinhala language. Pre History There were Several diff ...
,
Deva Deva may refer to: Entertainment * ''Deva'' (1989 film), a 1989 Kannada film * ''Deva'' (1995 film), a 1995 Tamil film * ''Deva'' (2002 film), a 2002 Bengali film * Deva (2007 Telugu film) * ''Deva'' (2017 film), a 2017 Marathi film * Deva ...
, Nekathi, Bodhivansha, Rajaka, kumbal, Hunu, Durava,
Karava Karava () is a Sinhalese speaking ethnic group of Sri Lanka, whose ancestors from ancient times migrated from the Coromandel coast, claiming lineage to the Kaurava royalty of the old Kingdom of Kuru in Northern India. The Tamil equivalent is Kar ...
, Salagama and Navandanna, with smaller castes being absorbed to the larger castes.


= Kandyan castes

= In the Central Highlands, many traditions of the
Kingdom of Kandy The Kingdom of Kandy was a monarchy on the Sri Lanka, island of Sri Lanka, located in the central and eastern portion of the island. It was founded in the late 15th century and endured until the early 19th century. Initially a client kingdom ...
were preserved from its 1818 collapse beyond independence in 1948 and the Land Reform Act of the 1970s. Although large agricultural landlords belonged to the Govigama caste, many now may not own land. Most Govigama were however ordinary farmers and tenants as absolute land ownership was exclusive to the king until the British colonial period. In addition to the Govigama, there were several strata of occupational castes.
Wahumpura Dewa people were one of the four main tribes (Dewa, Yaksha, Naga, Raksha) of ancient Sri Lanka who founded the coalition of Sinhalese nationality. Sinhalese people (Sinhala: සිංහල ජනතාව, romanized: Sinhala Janathāva) are an A ...
or Deva were the caste who traditionally made
jaggery Jaggery is a traditional non-centrifugal cane sugar consumed in the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and Africa. It is a concentrated product of cane juice and often date or palm sap without separation of the molasses and crystals, and can ...
and farmed. The
Bathgama Bathgama a Sri Lankan caste predominantly in the Kandyan provinces, the traditional occupation of which was the cultivation of rice paddy. Hence the name Bath (rice) and Gama (village) in the Sinhala language. Pre History There were Several diff ...
caste was also engaged in agriculture with access to some land. The Navandanna (Achari) caste were artisans. The
Rada The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA; ) is a drama school in London, England, that provides vocational conservatoire training for theatre, film, television, and radio. It is based in the Bloomsbury area of Central London, close to the Senat ...
were washers, and this caste is still prevalent in Sri Lanka's laundry sector. The Berava were traditional drummers and agricultural wage laborers. The Kinnara caste did menial work and were segregated from the rest of the community. The most important feature of the Kandyan system was ''Rajakariya'' ("the king's work"), which linked each caste to an occupation and demanded service to the court and religious institutions.


= Southern castes

= There were differences between the caste structures of the highlands and those of the low country, although some service groups were common to both in ancient Sri Lanka. The southwestern coast had three other castes (the Salagama, the Durava and the
Karava Karava () is a Sinhalese speaking ethnic group of Sri Lanka, whose ancestors from ancient times migrated from the Coromandel coast, claiming lineage to the Kaurava royalty of the old Kingdom of Kuru in Northern India. The Tamil equivalent is Kar ...
) in addition to the majority Govigama, which was common throughout the region. Some of these castes' ancestors are believed to have migrated from Southern India, and have become important in the Sinhalese social system. The first-century BC Anuradhpura Abayagiri inscription referring to a ''Karava navika'' may be the first reference to a specialized occupation.


= Tamil castes

= The
Tolkāppiyam ''Tolkāppiyam'', also romanised as ''Tholkaappiyam'' ( ta, தொல்காப்பியம், ''lit.'' "ancient poem"), is the most ancient extant Tamil grammar text and the oldest extant long work of Tamil literature. The surviving manus ...
Porulatikaram indicating the four-fold division is the earliest Tamil literature to mention caste.
Sangam literature The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam'';) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ'') connotes ...
however mentions only five ''kudis'' associated with the five ''tinais''. Colonialism also had influenced the caste system.Their caste system had stronger religious ties than its Sinhalese counterpart, although both systems have comparable castes. In the caste system observed, there were distinctions between
Northern Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a ra ...
and Eastern societies, and also the agricultural and coastal societies. In the agricultural society were there mainly the castes of the Vellalar, Nalavar and
Koviar (, also known as Covia) is a Tamil caste found in Sri Lanka. They are traditional agriculturalists and temple workers. ''Kattavarayan'' as caste deity is observed by the Koviar. Etymology The Yalpana Vaipava Malai states that the term ''Koviyar ...
, where the Vellalar caste is the dominating one, particularly in Northern Sri Lanka. They approximately constitute half of the
Sri Lankan Tamil Sri Lankan Tamils ( or ), also known as Ceylon Tamils or Eelam Tamils, are Tamils native to the South Asian island state of Sri Lanka. Today, they constitute a majority in the Northern Province, live in significant numbers in the Eastern Pr ...
population and were the major land owning and agricultural caste. The Northern and Western coastal society was dominated by the Karaiyars, traditionally a seafaring and warrior caste. The Thimilar and the
Paravar Paravar (also known as Bharathar or Bharathakula and sometimes colloquially as 'Fernando') is a Tamil maritime community, mainly living in the state of Tamil Nadu in India and in Sri Lanka. Pandyas aka Bharathavars are the Ancient Sea Farers and ...
were also among the coastal communities involved in fishing. The Mukkuvars, traditional
pearl divers Pearl hunting, also known as pearling, is the activity of recovering pearls from wild molluscs, usually oysters or mussels, in the sea or freshwater. Pearl hunting was prevalent in the Persian Gulf region and Japan for thousands of years. On the ...
, dominate greater parts of Eastern Sri Lanka where they were the major landowners also involved in agriculture. The artisans, known locally as
Kammalar The Kammalar (கம்மாளர்) is a Tamil caste group found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and in northeastern part of Sri Lanka. The Kammalars are involved in crafting. ''Kammalar'' is a generic term that comprises the communitie ...
or Vishwakarma consists of the Kannar (brass-workers), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths), Tatchar (carpenters), Kartatchar (sculptor). Along with the Kammalar were the
Ambattar Ambattar (also known by many other names) is a Tamil caste found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and northeastern part of Sri Lanka. Their traditional occupations are physicians, midwives and barbers. Leslie in his comparative study of Asian me ...
(barbers),
Kadaiyar Devendrakula Velalar is an agricultural community native to the Pandya Nadu, southern, Chola Nadu, central and Kongu Nadu, western districts of Tamil Nadu, India. The seven subcastes of Devendrakula Velalar are Devendra Kulathar, Kudum ...
(lime burners),
Koviar (, also known as Covia) is a Tamil caste found in Sri Lanka. They are traditional agriculturalists and temple workers. ''Kattavarayan'' as caste deity is observed by the Koviar. Etymology The Yalpana Vaipava Malai states that the term ''Koviyar ...
(farmers), Kusavar (potters), Maraiyar (conch blowers), Nattuvar (musician), Nalavar (toddy-tappers), Pallar (farm workers), Paraiyar (drummers), Turumbar (scavengers) and
Vannar Vannar is a Tamil caste found primarily in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. The community has traditionally been involved in laundry. also agricultural workers They are in Tamil Nadu classified as Most Backwar ...
(dhobies) constituting the domestic servants termed as ''Kudimakkal''. The Kudimakkal gave ritual importance in marriage, funeral and other temple ceremonies. Other Sri Lankan Tamil castes of importance were the Cirpatar (cultivators), Iyer (priests),
Kaikolar Sengunthar (), also known as the Kaikolar and Senguntha Mudaliyar is a Tamil caste commonly found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and also in some other parts of South India and the neighboring country Sri Lanka. They were traditional weavers ...
(weavers), Madapalli (former royal cooks), Shanar (toddy-tappers) and
Maravar Maravar (also known as Maravan and Marava) are a Tamil community in the state of Tamil Nadu. These people are one of the three branches of the Mukkulathor confederacy. Members of the Maravar community often use the honorific title ''Thevar''. The ...
(Poligar-Warriors). The Sri Lankan Chetties, traditional merchants, along with the
Bharatha people Bharatha People (, ) also known as Bharatakula and Paravar, is an ethnicity in the island of Sri Lanka. Earlier considered a caste of the Sri Lankan Tamils, they got classified as separate ethnic group in the 2001 census. They are descendant of ...
, traditional seatraders, were listed as their own ethnicities in Sri Lankan census. The Coast Veddas, found mainly in Eastern Sri Lanka were considered a Tamil caste among the
Sri Lankan Tamils Sri Lankan Tamils ( or ), also known as Ceylon Tamils or Eelam Tamils, are Tamils native to the South Asian island state of Sri Lanka. Today, they constitute a majority in the Northern Province, live in significant numbers in the Eastern Pro ...
. The village deities of the Sri Lankan Tamils were also shaped by the caste structure. The
Sri Lankan Moors Sri Lankan Moors ( ta, இலங்கைச் சோனகர், translit=Ilaṅkaic Cōṉakar; si, ලංකා යෝනක, translit=Lanka Yonaka; formerly Ceylon Moors; colloquially referred to as Sri Lankan Muslims) are an ethnic minorit ...
don't practice the caste system, however follow a ''matriclan'' system which is an extension of Tamil tradition.


Ceylon

With the onset of the colonial rule in the country, different castes emerged with new occupation. However, social mobility was present since the colonial rulers didn't impose hereditary occupations as was the case in the Kandy Kingdom. Therefore, it is identified that this is the point in which the caste began to be limited to a social culture rather than an occupational group. Newer castes originated at this point such as the powerful Mudaliyar class who loyally served their colonial masters. By the late 19th century the upper class natives of Ceylon (called Ceylonese by the British) formed a second class group in their own land, serving their colonial masters. The finest example of this would be the famous second class and third class carriages use by the Ceylonese on the trains due to the first being reserved only for Europeans . This upper class of Ceylonese derived their wealth from land holdings that were passed down the generations and derived their power from serving in posts in the British colonial administration. At first these were limited to post special posts reserved for natives such as Rate Mahattaya in the central highlands and the Mudaliyars in the coastal areas, letter as new generation of these native chieftains grew up educated in the Christian missionary schools,
public school Public school may refer to: * State school (known as a public school in many countries), a no-fee school, publicly funded and operated by the government * Public school (United Kingdom), certain elite fee-charging independent schools in England an ...
s modeled after their English counterparts and at British Universities they were taken in to the
Ceylon Civil Service The Ceylon Civil Service, popularly known by its acronym CCS, was the premier civil service of the Government of Ceylon under British colonial rule and in the immediate post-independence period. Established in 1833, it functioned as part of the ...
, others took up places in the Legislative and later the State councils. Entering into this upper class were successful merchants who gained wealth in the lucrative mining industry of the time. A middle class emerged at this period of a
bourgeois The bourgeoisie ( , ) is a social class, equivalent to the middle or upper middle class. They are distinguished from, and traditionally contrasted with, the proletariat by their affluence, and their great cultural and financial capital. They ...
people who gained their status by Professions or by Business.


Sri Lanka

The 20th century brought several changes to the social structure. By the 1940s when Ceylon gained Independence from the British (in 1948) there were four social groups. Upper class made up primary of landowners, the Upper middle class of educated professionals holding traditional jobs such as Lawyers, Doctors, Army officers, Academics, senior Civil Servants and police officers; and merchants. The political leaders of the new Dominion of Ceylon came from these to classes. Lower middle class made up persons who were educated but held less prestigious, but respected jobs such lower level public servants, policemen, teachers. This order changed dramatically in the 1970s due to the land reforms brought on by the government of
Sirimavo Bandaranaike Sirima Ratwatte Dias Bandaranaike ( si, සිරිමා රත්වත්තේ ඩයස් බණ්ඩාරනායක; ta, சிறிமா ரத்வத்தே டயஸ் பண்டாரநாயக்கே; 17 April 191 ...
who limited private owner ship of land to and ownership of private houses to two (later changed), excess land was nationalized along with many industries. This rendered the wealthiest who made up the Upper class and Upper middle class who greatly dependent on a secondary income void of their income and with it their power. The following the failure of the socialist economic drive of the 1970s the new government of
J R Jayewardene J, or j, is the tenth Letter (alphabet), letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the English alphabet, modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its usual name in English is English alpha ...
open up the counties economy to free market reforms. This along with the civil war saw major change in the social structure. The direct result of the changes of the 1970s and the 1980s was witnessed only at the late 20th century and start of the 21st century. Today;


Society


Upper class

The upper class in Sri Lanka is statistically very small and consists of industrialists, businessmen, senior executives and serving government ministers. These people are the wealthiest in the land, having in some cases inherited money and position, and in other cases having earned it themselves. Their educational backgrounds may vary, but they typically send their children to national, private or international schools to be educated in English and thereafter send them to overseas universities.


Upper middle class

The upper middle class in Sri Lanka consists of educated professionals. Traditional jobs include lawyers, university lecturers, doctors, engineers, senior military officers, senior civil servants, managers, and businessmen who generally come from educated backgrounds, having been educated at public or private schools and local or foreign universities. Manage own business that have high income. They typically send their children (depending on family income, traditions, residence) to national, private or international schools to be educated in English or in their local languages. For university education, they may be sent to overseas universities or local private higher education institutions (depending on family income).


Middle class

The middle classes include government workers such as teachers, government department workers and manage small business such as retails business and service provided. Some can afford to put their children into private national schools but refrain from the more expensive private international schools. The Sri Lankan national universities are mainly for the Middle classes. The middle class university students do travel abroad on university scholarships.


Lower middle class

The lower middle class in Sri Lanka consists of people in blue-collar jobs living in less prosperous suburbs. This class constitutes the largest of Sri Lanka's social groups. Typically they have not have had a university education, and send their children to national or provincial schools to be educated in their local languages (depending on family residence or scholarships). For university education, if selected they may be sent to local state universities, if not local private higher education institutions.


Lower class

These people would typically be on low incomes and dependent on state benefits. Many reside in the slums or shanty towns of cities or underdeveloped rural areas. They send their children to provincial schools to be educated in their local languages.


Discrimination

Although caste discrimination is still found in Sri Lanka (particularly in rural areas), caste boundaries are blurring. Political power and wealth have largely replaced caste as the main factor in Sri Lankan social stratification, especially in the Sinhalese and Indian Tamil communities. Ponnambalam Ramanathan, under
British Ceylon British Ceylon ( si, බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය ලංකාව, Britānya Laṃkāva; ta, பிரித்தானிய இலங்கை, Biritthāṉiya Ilaṅkai) was the British Crown colony of present-day Sri Lanka between ...
, opposed extending voting rights to the people and urged reservation of franchise only to men of the Vellalar caste. In 1951 the Kandyan Peasantry Commission wrote, "... As a first step in the fight against caste it is necessary to abolish the service tenures." (R.K.P.C. 1951, p. 180.) Nur Yalman encountered caste division in the Ceylonese village of Terutenne in 1954. According to Lakshman et al.,"Sri Lanka's Development Since Independence: Socio-economic Perspectives and Analyses", New York, 2000 "The Social Disabilities Act of 1957 intended to outlaw caste-based discrimination" (p. 68, note 16).


References


External links


The impact of macro-events on social structure in Sri Lanka
{{Asia in topic, Social class in