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The ''senatus consultum ultimum'' ("final decree of the Senate", often abbreviated to SCU) is the modern term given to resolutions of the
Roman Senate The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...
lending its moral support for
magistrates The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. In ancient Rome, a '' magistratus'' was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judic ...
to use the full extent of their powers and ignore the laws to safeguard the state. The decree has been interpreted to mean something akin to martial law, a suspension of the constitution, or a state of emergency. However, it is generally accepted that the senate did not have power to make or provide exceptions to laws. No laws were actually suspended; the senate merely lent its moral authority to defend a magistrate's extra-legal acts. First used against
Gaius Gracchus Gaius Sempronius Gracchus ( – 121 BC) was a reformist Roman politician in the 2nd century BC. He is most famous for his tribunate for the years 123 and 122 BC, in which he proposed a wide set of laws, including laws to establish ...
in 121 BC to suppress a violent protest against repeal of a colonisation law and accepted thereafter, recourse to the decree accelerated over the course of the last century of the republic. Its use was politically disputed, although usually in terms of whether a decree was justified by the challenges facing the state rather than in terms of its overarching legality.


Name

The decree does not have a specific name in the sources, where it is usually mentioned "by quoting what was obviously its opening advisory statements to the magistrate who had it passed". Rather, it is a modern term that emerges from
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
's ''
Commentarii de Bello Civili ''Commentarii de Bello Civili'' ''(Commentaries on the Civil War)'', or ''Bellum Civile'', is an account written by Julius Caesar of his war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Roman Senate. It consists of three books covering the events of 49� ...
'', in which he writes: Caesar coined the term from his claim – "which one should take ''cum grano salis''" – that it was passed as a last resort when, in Caesar's words, "the city of Rome itself was already practically in flames and there was despair over the safety of everyone in the state". Since this is the shortest mention of the decree available, "the label... seems to have stuck". The specific phraseology of the senatorial resolution was much longer: Earlier versions of the decree may have, however, mentioned only the consul presiding. A minority of modern scholars prefer the name ''senatus consultum de re publica defendenda'' rather than Caesar's coinage.


Decree

The decree was a statement of the senate advising the magistrates (usually the
consuls A consul is an official representative of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, as well as to facilitate trade and friendship between the people ...
and
praetor Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected '' magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to discharge vari ...
s) to defend the state. The ''senatus consultum ultimum'' was related to a series of other emergency decrees that the republic could resort to in a crisis, such as decrees to levy soldiers, shut down public business, or declare people to be public enemies.


Effect

In the context defending the state, "it was interpreted as authorising the magistrates to employ physical repression against (unspecified) public enemies without being bound by strict legality". The decree's impact was mainly in terms of the senate establishing political cover for magistrates to take legally-dubious actions: Instead of being a formal part of the laws, "its validity rested solely on the ''auctoritas'' of the senate" with "the senate's implicit promise to use its full ''dignitas'' and ''auctorias'' to support the consuls should they be prosecuted". The decree was generally the only way for the republic's government to stop political violence – "a political weapon largely exploited by magistrates for limited ends" – in the absence of a police force, "the notion of
hich Ij ( fa, ايج, also Romanized as Īj; also known as Hich and Īch) is a village in Golabar Rural District, in the Central District of Ijrud County, Zanjan Province, Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also ...
was alien to republican thought". Actual enforcement of the decree required "the authorities ocount on a substantial number of followers in the citizen body" to employ repression: "thus, consensus within the citizenry was a necessary precondition for the implementation of emergency measures, with respect to the physical means of power as well as to the legitimacy hereof. Normally, citizens were protected against the power of magistrates by the right of ''provocatio'' and the protection of the
tribune of the plebs Tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune ( la, tribunus plebis) was the first office of the Roman state that was open to the plebeians, and was, throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the power o ...
. One of the effects of the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' may have been in directing or convincing the tribunes not to intervene; there are also cases where tribunes were "enlisted as supporters of its execution". The final decree may also have been the senate's instruction that the consuls ignore the laws and use their ''
imperium In ancient Rome, ''imperium'' was a form of authority held by a citizen to control a military or governmental entity. It is distinct from '' auctoritas'' and '' potestas'', different and generally inferior types of power in the Roman Republic a ...
'' (the power of military command) within the ''
pomerium The ''pomerium'' or ''pomoerium'' was a religious boundary around the city of Rome and cities controlled by Rome. In legal terms, Rome existed only within its ''pomerium''; everything beyond it was simply territory ('' ager'') belonging to Rome. ...
'' (the boundaries of the city), "overpower ngthe normal ''potestas'' ivil magisterial authorityof all other magistrates, including that of the tribunes". Because the decree was vague, its specific effects were at the discretion of the magistrates charged with putting it into effect. For example, during the Catilinarian conspiracy,
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
– according to Sallust – urged then-consul
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
"not to transgress the laws too blatantly by executing the leading Catilinarians in the city without formal trial".


Liability

The senate itself had no authority to authorise the breaking of laws; it did not do so when moving a ''senatus consultum ultimum''. Its vague decree, rather, urged the magistrates, with substantial discretion, to resolve a crisis; in doing so, it pinned all legal liability for those actions on the magistrates themselves. Passing the decree instead signified that the senate offered its support of the measures taken and that extra-legal measures were needed for the safety of the state. In the aftermath of the decree's usage, those responsible for the use of force were regularly prosecuted on grounds that citizens had been killed extrajudicially ("which was in fact true"); the defence in the courts then was "whether this illegality could be justified". In the first instance, in 121 BC, the consul executing the decree justified his actions in terms of public safety; Cicero in his time may have brought a similar argument in ''De legibus'' in his tag ''
Salus populi suprema lex esto (Latin: "The health (welfare, good, salvation, felicity) of the people should be the supreme law", "Let the good (or safety) of the people be the supreme (or highest) law", or "The welfare of the people shall be the supreme law") is a maxim or ...
'' ("Let the safety of the people be the supreme law"). By Cicero's time (), the decree had been legitimised merely by custom and precedent. There are multiple cases where magistrates or their followers taking actions armed with a ''senatus consultum ultimum'' were faced the prospect of being hauled before the courts in later years: Lucius Opimius, Gaius Rabirius, and
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
being prime examples. The senate, at times, would attempt to use its influence to secure an acquittal of a magistrate charged, or otherwise threaten to declare anyone who brought charges ''hostis''. Opponents, rather than disputing the validity of the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' in general, rather disputed the need or justification of a specific instance thereof.


History

Livy asserts that the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' was first used in 446 and 384 BC, but scholars do not read these as actual usages of something akin to the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' of the late republic. Modern scholars believe it is likely that these claims are anachronisms inserted into the early republic to "provide a plausible account of the suppression of a revolution" and that "we should put no faith in the historical veracity of these two early appearances".


Development

In cases of sedition in Rome, the republic faced a three-fold problem. First, there was no standing army or police force with which to maintain public order. Second, well-protected rights of ''provocatio'' and tribunician intercession constrained magisterial powers of punishment. Third, the operations of the criminal courts were insufficiently rapid and could regardless be disrupted by armed mobs. The ''senatus consultum ultimum'' may have emerged naturally as a response to these problems as a means of self-help.
Theodor Mommsen Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen (; 30 November 1817 – 1 November 1903) was a German classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician and archaeologist. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest classicists of the 19th centur ...
, for example, argued that "the temporary neglect of legal process in a crisis was necessary and, because necessary, unproblematic". Gerhard Plaumann agreed and argued that the decree's purpose was in "render ngthe supra-legal measures taken less arbitrary". Its usage in the late republic also was in contrast to the general practice of the early republic to appoint
dictators A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute power. A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a small clique. The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to rule the republic in time ...
to resolve domestic unrest. By the time of the emergence of the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' in 121 BC, the dictatorship had been in abeyance for some time, the last having been appointed in 202 BC. The development of the final decree was likely motivated by the dictatorship's abeyance. That the consuls also were more likely to be in the city due to magisterial prorogation also made empowering the consuls to act more feasible. Moreover, appointment of a dictator was incompatible with the growing tendency of "both the senate and the people to act on their own behalf" with greater emphasis on the collective engagement of the nobility in state affairs. Some scholars trace the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' to 133 BC with the killing of
Tiberius Gracchus Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus ( 163 – 133 BC) was a Roman politician best known for his agrarian reform law entailing the transfer of land from the Roman state and wealthy landowners to poorer citizens. He had also served in the Roma ...
, arguing that the instance meets the criteria of being a senatorial action calling upon the consuls to protect the republic. However, as the consul at the time rejected the senatorial vote and Gracchus was killed by a private citizen (the then-'' pontifex maximus'' Scipio Nasica Serapio), historians disagree as to whether this qualifies as an actual senatorial decree. The first official use of the decree was in 121 BC, when the senate passed it against Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (Tiberius' younger brother) and Marcus Fulvius Flaccus. It was issued in response to a violent protest held by Gracchus and Flaccus against repeal of legislation to establish a colony at Carthage that they and allies had passed the previous year. In the aftermath, Gracchus, Flaccus, and their supporters were killed ''en masse'' as one of the consuls of that year, Lucius Opimius, brought soldiers across the pomerium and laid siege to Gracchus and Flaccus' positions on the
Aventine Hill The Aventine Hill (; la, Collis Aventinus; it, Aventino ) is one of the Seven Hills on which ancient Rome was built. It belongs to Ripa, the modern twelfth '' rione'', or ward, of Rome. Location and boundaries The Aventine Hill is the so ...
. The following year, Opimius was prosecuted by a tribune for killing citizens without trial, but was acquitted after he justified his actions on the basis of the ''senatus consultum ultimum''. While this set a precedent that actions taken under an ''senatus consultum ultimum'' were normally free from legal consequence and could be used as "carte blanche for the most brutal reprisals", the decree remained controversial and continued to be debated by contemporaries.


Usage from 100 to 49 BC


Saturninus and Glaucia

It was next used against
Lucius Appuleius Saturninus Lucius Appuleius Saturninus (died late 100 BC) was a Roman populist and tribune. He is most notable for introducing a series of legislative reforms, alongside his associate Gaius Servilius Glaucia and with the consent of Gaius Marius, during the ...
and
Gaius Servilius Glaucia Gaius Servilius Glaucia (died late 100 BC) was a Roman politician who served as praetor in 100 BC. He is most well known for being an illegal candidate for the consulship of 99 BC. He was killed during riots and political violence i ...
in 100 BC.
Gaius Marius Gaius Marius (; – 13 January 86 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. Victor of the Cimbric and Jugurthine wars, he held the office of consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also noted for his important refor ...
was then one of the consuls. The proximate cause of the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' was Saturninus and Glaucia's assassination of a fellow candidate for the consulship at that year's elections and their general usage of political violence to advance factional political interests. Marius raised a militia which besieged Saturninus and Glaucia after they seized the
Capitoline Hill The Capitolium or Capitoline Hill ( ; it, Campidoglio ; la, Mons Capitolinus ), between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the Seven Hills of Rome. The hill was earlier known as ''Mons Saturnius'', dedicated to the god Saturn. ...
. They surrendered after receiving guarantees against summary execution from Marius and were imprisoned in the senate house, but were then lynched by a mob. Marius' suppression of Saturninus and Glaucia in 100 BC was not quickly forgotten. One of his lieutenants, Gaius Rabirius, was tried twice – both times in 63 BC, decades after the suppression of Saturninus' revolt, – and almost convicted before the trials were disrupted.


Sulla

A brief and muddled account suggests that a ''senatus consultum ultimum'' was moved by the senate, which at the time was under the domination of Lucius Cornelius Cinna's faction, against
Sulla Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. Sulla had t ...
shortly before
Sulla's civil war Sulla's civil war was fought between the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla and his opponents, the Cinna-Marius faction (usually called the Marians or the Cinnans after their former leaders Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna), in the y ...
in the year 83 BC.


Lepidus

The next usage well-established was against the uprising of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 77 BC. This marked its normal application not against civil disturbance from within the city, but also against "an alleged external enemy, when there was no threat of violence in Rome at all". Lepidus, who was governor of Transalpine Gaul, marched on Rome with an army after his reform programme was blocked by his co-consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus. After the senate was convinced at the urging of a senior senator, Lucius Marcius Philippus, that Lepidus' forces were a threat against the stability of the recently-established Sullan constitution, they moved the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' and in early 77, Catulus defeated him in battle outside Rome, forcing him to flee to Sardinia, where he was later killed in further fighting.


Catiline and conspirators

Following Lepidus' revolt, the final decree was moved again in 63 BC against
Lucius Sergius Catilina Lucius Sergius Catilina ( 108 BC – January 62 BC), known in English as Catiline (), was a Roman politician and soldier. He is best known for instigating the Catilinarian conspiracy, a failed attempt to violently seize control of the R ...
. Catiline formed a
conspiracy A conspiracy, also known as a plot, is a secret plan or agreement between persons (called conspirers or conspirators) for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder or treason, especially with political motivation, while keeping their agr ...
to overthrow the government and install himself as consul after being twice defeated in consular elections and having run out of money to finance a further campaign. He then raised an army to pursue his goals by force and proclaimed himself consul after the conspiracy was discovered. Controversially, Cicero, with the backing of the senate, executed a number of the conspirators who were captured in Rome without trial, partly because of his lack of confidence in the courts on which the Sullan republic was based. This was especially questionable because the men Cicero had killed were not actively under arms or amid armed men; both law and custom in such cases would have directed the state first to convict them before having them killed. Cicero was immediately attacked by two of the plebeian tribunes for his death sentences. While he was reprieved for a few years by the senate's voting of immunity and its threat to declare anyone who initiated a prosecution against him a public enemy, he nevertheless was forced into a temporary exile in 58 BC when
Publius Clodius Pulcher Publius Clodius Pulcher (93–52 BC) was a populist Roman politician and street agitator during the time of the First Triumvirate. One of the most colourful personalities of his era, Clodius was descended from the aristocratic Claudia gens, one ...
passed a new law – overriding the senatorial grant of immunity – sentencing anyone who had put to death citizens without trial to exile. The ''senatus consultum ultimum'' was raised again in the following year against Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos, who was then tribune of plebs, and
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
to suppress their attempts to violently force through a proposal to give the command against the Catilinarians to Pompey. Caesar and Metellus Nepos backed down and their careers continued (they reached the consulship in 59 and 57 BC, respectively).


Milo and Clodius

The next instance was in 52 BC, which occurred in a climate of profound political instability. For the last two years, it had been almost impossible to hold regular elections. In 53, the year started without consuls, for there had been no elections, and it proved impossible for seven months to hold elections due to constant street skirmishes between mobs loyal to
Publius Clodius Pulcher Publius Clodius Pulcher (93–52 BC) was a populist Roman politician and street agitator during the time of the First Triumvirate. One of the most colourful personalities of his era, Clodius was descended from the aristocratic Claudia gens, one ...
and
Titus Annius Milo Titus Annius Milo (died 48 BC) was a Roman political agitator. The son of Gaius Papius Celsus, he was adopted by his maternal grandfather, Titus Annius Luscus. In 52 BC, he was prosecuted for the murder of Publius Clodius Pulcher and exiled from ...
and tribunician vetos against election of '' interreges'' to call elections. The elections for 52 were similarly delayed; in January 52, there were no magistrates in the city, and a chance encounter between Pulcher and Milo led to Pulcher's death by Milo's hand, leading to the burning of the senate house by a mob. "Faced with violence and bloodshed in the streets while there were still no magistrates in office", the senate moved the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' and instructed an ''
interrex The interrex (plural interreges) was literally a ruler "between kings" (Latin ''inter reges'') during the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Republic. He was in effect a short-term regent. History The office of ''interrex'' was supposedly created follow ...
'', with the support of
Pompey Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
and his troops, to restore order and suppress the Clodian and Milonian mobs. Pompey was then elected sole consul to maintain order. Order was restored relatively quickly and there were no large-scale extrajudicial killings; Milo was then duly prosecuted for murder under the ''lex Pompeia de vi'' in 52 BC.


Caesar

One of the most famous usages of the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' was against Julius Caesar in 49 BC, after negotiations between him and senate broke down the first week of January that year. While the ''senatus consultum'' was vetoed by tribunes friendly to Caesar, this was ignored, as the senate, "if not onvincedof Caesar's wickedness asat least onvincedof the inevitability of conflict". This, along with Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon days later, triggered his civil war. Caesar, for his part, objected to the use of the ''senatus consultum ultimum'': while accepting its legitimacy in general, he objected more specifically to the use of the decree – which he characterises as a last resort – in the absence of violence in the city and its use to put Caesar-aligned tribunes to flight, enabling the senate to act against him without the tribunes' interventions. Caesar's claims were not entirely accurate: there was precedent for passing a ''senatus consultum ultimum'' against a target far from Rome; moreover, Caesar's claim that the tribunes were put to flight is debated, for Cicero reports the Caesar-aligned tribunes left without the pressure of violence.


Later usage

The ''senatus consultum ultimum'' remained in use during the civil war. It was used to suppress a revolt for debt relief instigated by
Marcus Caelius Rufus Marcus Caelius Rufus (28 May 82 BC – after 48 BC) was an orator and politician in the late Roman Republic. He was born into a wealthy equestrian family from Interamnia Praetuttiorum (Teramo), on the central east coast of Italy. He is best kn ...
and
Titus Annius Milo Titus Annius Milo (died 48 BC) was a Roman political agitator. The son of Gaius Papius Celsus, he was adopted by his maternal grandfather, Titus Annius Luscus. In 52 BC, he was prosecuted for the murder of Publius Clodius Pulcher and exiled from ...
in 48, resulting in both their deaths. It was used again against civil disturbance instigated by Publius Cornelius Dolabella in 47 BC when he seized the Forum in an attempt to force through a law abolishing all debts.
Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (14 January 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic from a constitutional republic into the au ...
, then Caesar's dictatorial lieutenant, led troops to disperse Dolabella's encampment, which resulted in the slaughter of, reportedly, eight hundred citizens. Dolabella, however, survived and was later pardoned by Caesar. Following Caesar's civil war, the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' remained in use for a short time until its last recorded use in 40 BC. During the short war between the senate and Antony, Antony was possibly targeted by a ''senatus consultum ultimum'' in 43 BC which the consuls,
Aulus Hirtius Aulus Hirtius (; – 43 BC) was consul of the Roman Republic in 43 BC and a writer on military subjects. He was killed during his consulship in battle against Mark Antony at the Battle of Mutina. Biography He was a legate of Julius Caesar's ...
and Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus, enforced by marching north and engaging Antony in battle. The consuls marched north with the aid of
Octavian Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
, who had been voted ''imperium pro praetore'' and directed to join the consuls. Although victorious, both consuls were killed in the fighting and
Octavian Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
demanded the consulship, which the senate refused; in response, he marched on Rome with his army (adduced by defections from the now-leaderless consular armies). Octavian was then targeted by another ''senatus consultum ultimum'' which directed the urban praetor – Marcus Caecilius Cornutus – to defend the city, but the remaining forces under the senate quickly defected to Octavian, leading to his irregular election as consul with
Quintus Pedius Quintus Pedius ( – late 43 BC) was a Roman politician and general who lived during the late Republic. He served as a military officer under Julius Caesar for most of his career. Serving with Caesar during the civil war, he was elected praetor ...
. By this point, it had become clear that the resources available to the senate in declaring a ''senatus consultum ultimum'' were "insufficient for successfully countering the threats that brought the system down".


Impact

The ''senatus consultum ultimum'' and political violence were both a symptom and a cause of the weakened elite cohesion that contributed to the fall of the republic. Its use from 121 BC onward "highlighted the basic weakness at the heart of government, which was no longer able to assert itself in the traditional manner", which would have, with its strong cohesion and norms of collective government, precluded such crises in the first place. Perspectives differ as to the extent to which this displayed senatorial weakness: while use of the senate's ''auctoritas'' in this manner itself implied its insufficiency to restrain seditious behaviour, targets (like Caesar) took "care to show that the ecreeagainst him had no basis", showing his at least ostensible need to respect the traditional political culture which placed the senate at the republic's heart. Moreover, as Harriet Flower argues, "the decree itself, in tone and in effect, seems to subvert the effectiveness of the existing norms of the very republican government that it purported to uphold", adding that its use against Gaius Gracchus and Flaccus in 121 BC set a dangerous precedent that "suggested violence as the logical and more effective alternative to political engagement, negotiation, and compromise within the parameters set by existing political norms". Some scholars who believe in the factionalist interpretation of Roman politics between ''populares'' and ''optimates'' also frame the decree in terms of the ostensible struggle between the two factions and in terms of an attempt to disguise core sociopolitical disputes as legal arcana. Attempts by older scholarship to paint the so-called ''
populares Optimates (; Latin for "best ones", ) and populares (; Latin for "supporters of the people", ) are labels applied to politicians, political groups, traditions, strategies, or ideologies in the late Roman Republic. There is "heated academic dis ...
'' as opponents of the decree's use, or of the death penalty, are widely rejected as being inconsistent with the evidence of acceptance and use of the decree across the political spectrum. By the post-Sullan period, the use of the decree was both normalised and accepted: Caesar accepted its legality (although he denied its suitability in his situation), as did the late republican historian
Sallust Gaius Sallustius Crispus, usually anglicised as Sallust (; 86 – ), was a Roman historian and politician from an Italian plebeian family. Probably born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines, Sallust became during the 50s BC a partisa ...
.


See also

*
State of emergency A state of emergency is a situation in which a government is empowered to be able to put through policies that it would normally not be permitted to do, for the safety and protection of its citizens. A government can declare such a state du ...
* Roman emergency decrees


Notes


References


Citations


Modern sources

* * ** ** * * * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * ** ** * * * * * * * * * *


Ancient sources

* * {{refend


External links


The Roman Law Library: Decrees of the Senate
Roman law Roman Republic Emergency laws Roman Senate