Secession theory
There is a great deal of theorizing about secession so that it is difficult to identify a consensus regarding its definition. There is also a claim that this subject has been neglected by political philosophers and that by the 1980swhen it finally generated interestthe discourse concentrated on the moral justifications of the unilateral right to secession. It was only in the early 1990s when American philosopher Allen Buchanan offered the first systematic account of the subject and contributed to theJustifications for secession
Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason ("Choice Theory") while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices ("Just Cause Theory"). Some theories do both. A list of justifications may be presented supporting the right to secede, as described by Allen Buchanan, Robert McGee, Anthony Birch, Jane Jacobs,Types of secession
Secession theorists have described a number of ways in which a political entity (city, county, canton, state) can secede from the larger or original state: * Secession fromArguments against secession
Allen Buchanan, who supports secession under limited circumstances, lists arguments that might be used against secession: * "Protecting Legitimate Expectations" of those who now occupy territory claimed by secessionists, even in cases where that land was stolen * "Self Defense" if losing part of the state would make it difficult to defend the rest of it * "Protecting Majority Rule" and the principle that minorities must abide by them * "Minimization of Strategic Bargaining" by making it difficult to secede, such as by imposing an exit tax * "Soft Paternalism" because secession will be bad for secessionists or others * "Threat of Anarchy" because smaller and smaller entities may choose to secede until there is chaos, although this is not the true meaning of the political and philosophical concept * "Preventing Wrongful Taking" such as the state's previous investment in infrastructure * "Distributive Justice" arguments that wealthier areas cannot secede from poorer onesExplanations for the 20th century increase in secessionism
According to University of California, Santa Barbara, political scientist Bridget L. Coggins, there are four potential explanations in the academic literature for the drastic increase in state birth during the 20th century: * Ethnonational mobilization – Ethnic minorities have been increasingly mobilized to pursue states of their own. * Institutional empowerment – The growing inability of empires and ethnic federations to maintain colonies and member states. * Relative strength – Increasingly powerful secessionist movements are more likely to achieve statehood. * Negotiated consent – Home states and the international community increasingly consent to secessionist demands. Other scholars have linked secession to resource discoveries and extraction. David B. Carter, H. E. Goemans and Ryan Griffiths find that border changes among states tend to conform to borders for previous administrative units. Several scholars have argued that changes in the international system have made it easier to survive and prosper as a small state.Rights to secession
MostSecession movements
:' National secessionist movements advocate for the claim that a population within a state is a nation that has the right to form its own nation-state. Movements that work towards political secession may describe themselves as being autonomy, separatist,Australia
During the 19th century, the singleAustria
After being liberated by the Red Army and the U.S. Army, Austria seceded from Nazi Germany on April 27, 1945. This took place after seven years Austria under National Socialism, under Nazi rule, which began with the Anschluss, annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. The secession only took place once Nazi Germany had been defeated by the Allies.Bangladesh
The Banga Sena (Bengal Army) is a separatist Hinduism, Hindu organisation, which supports the making of a Bangabhumi/separate homeland for Hinduism in Bangladesh, Bengali Hindus in the People's Republic of Bangladesh. The group is led by Kalidas Baidya. The Shanti Bahini ( bn, শান্তি বাহিনী, "Peace Force") is the name of the military wing of the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti - the United People's Party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts aims are to create an indigenous Buddhism in Bangladesh, Buddhist orientated Chacomas state within SE Bangladesh.Belgium and the Netherlands
On August 25, 1830, during the reign of William I of the Netherlands, William I, the nationalistic opera ''La muette de Portici'' was performed in Brussels. Soon after, the Belgian Revolution, Belgian Revolt occurred, which resulted in the Belgian secession from the Kingdom of the Netherlands.Brazil
In 1825, soon after the Empire of Brazil managed to defeat the Portuguese Cortes, Cortes-Gerais and the Portuguese Empire in an Brazilian War of Independence, Independence War, the Platinean nationalists in Cisplatina declared independence and joined the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, United Provinces, which led to a Cisplatine War, stagnated war between both, as they were both weakened, without manpower and fragile politically. The peace treaty accepted Uruguay's independence, reasserted the rule of both nations over their land and some important points like free navigation in the Silver River. Three rather disorganized secessionist rebellions happened in Grão-Pará Province, Grão-Pará, Bahia and Maranhão, where the people were unhappy with the Empire (these provinces were Portuguese bastions in the Independence War). The Malê Revolt, in Bahia, was an Islamic slave revolt. These three rebellions were bloodily crushed by the Empire of Brazil. The History of Pernambuco, Pernambuco was one of the most Nativism (politics), nativist of all Brazilian regions, which in five revolts (1645–1654, 1710, 1817, 1824, 1848), the province Pernambucan Revolt, ousted the Dutch West India Company, tried to secede from the Portuguese Empire and from the Brazilian Empire. In the attempts the rebels were crushed, the leaders shot and its territory divided, nevertheless they kept revolting until its territory was a little fraction of what it was before. In the Ragamuffin War, the Rio Grande do Sul#History, Province of Rio Grande do Sul was undergoing a (at that time common) Liberalism in Brazil, liberal vs Conservatism in Brazil, conservative "cold" war. After Emperor Pedro II of Brazil favoured the conservatives, the liberals took the Capital and declared an Riograndense Republic, independent Republic, fighting their way to the Santa Catarina (state)#History, Province of Santa Catarina, declaring the Juliana Republic. Eventually they were slowly forced back, and made a reunification peace with the Empire. The war was not a secessionist war, even if it could become if the Empire were defeated, after the Empire agreed to aid its economy by taxing Argentina's products (like dry meat), the rebels reunited with the Empire and even filled its ranks, as the rebels were very good fighters. In modern times, the South Region, Brazil, South Region of Brazil has been the centre of a secessionist movement led by an organization called The South is My Country since the 1990s. Reasons cited for South Region Brazil's secession are taxation due to it being one of the wealthiest regions in the country and political disputes with the northernmost states of Brazil as well as 2015–16 protests in Brazil, the recent scandal revolving around the Workers Party (Brazil), Workers Party found to be making shady deals with state-owned oil company Petrobras and the impeachment of then-President of Brazil, President Dilma Rousseff additionally there is also an ethnic divide as the South Region is predominately White Brazilian, European populated primarily by German Brazilians, Germans, Italian Brazilians, Italians, Portuguese Brazilians, Portuguese and other European countries in contrast to the rest of Brazil which is a multicultural melting pot "Racial Democracy". The South Region in 2016 voted in an unofficial referendum called "Plebisul" in which 616,917 (or half a million) voters overwhelmingly supported secession and the creation of an independent South Region by 95%. Another Brazilian secession movement is based in the state of Sao Paulo (state), Sao Paulo which seeks to create to make the state an independent country from the rest of Brazil.Cameroon
In October 2017, Ambazonia declared its independence from Cameroon. Less than a month beforehand, tensions had escalated into Anglophone Crisis, open warfare between separatists and the Cameroon Armed Forces. The conflict, known as the "Anglophone Crisis", is deeply rooted in the October 1, 1961 incomplete decolonization of the former Southern Cameroons, British Southern Cameroons (UNGA Resolution 1608). On January 1, 1960, French Cameroon was granted independence from France as the Republic of Cameroon and was admitted into the United Nations. The more advanced democratic and self-ruling people of British Cameroon were instead limited to two choices. Through a UN plebiscite, they were directed to either join the federation of Nigeria or the independent Republic of Cameroon as a federation of two equal states. While the Northern Cameroons voted to join Nigeria, the Southern Cameroons voted to integrate into the Republic of Cameroon, but they did so without a formal UN Treaty of Union on record at the UN. In 1972, Cameroon used its majority population to abolish the federation and implement a system which resulted in the occupation of the former South Cameroons territory by French-speaking Cameroon administrators. To make matters worse in 1984, Cameroon returned to its name at independence "Republic of Cameroun" which did not include the territory of the former British Southern Cameroons or Ambazonia. For more than fifty years the English-speaking people of the Former British Southern Cameroons made multiple attempts both nationally and internationally to get the Cameroon government to address these issue and possibly return to the previously agreed federation at independence. When all these attempts failed in 2016 and Cameroon engaged in a military crackdown including cutting the internet in the English-speaking regions, the people of Southern Cameroons declared on October 1, 2017, the restoration of their UN state of Southern Cameroons, which they called the "Federal Republic of Ambazonia".Canada
Throughout Canada's history, there has been tension between English Canada, English-speaking and Francophone Canadians, French-speaking Canadians. Under the Constitutional Act of 1791, the Province of Quebec (1763–1791), Province of Quebec (including parts of what are today Quebec, Ontario and Newfoundland and Labrador) was divided in two: Lower Canada (which retained Law of France, French law and institutions and is now part of the provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador) and Upper Canada (a new colony intended to accommodate the many new English-speaking settlers, including the United Empire Loyalists, and now part of Ontario). The intent was to provide each group with its own colony. In 1841, the two Canadas were merged into the Province of Canada. The union proved contentious, however, resulting in a legislative deadlock between English and French legislators. The difficulties of the union led (amongst other factors) in 1867 to Canadian Confederation, Confederation, the adoption of a Canadian federalism, federal system that united the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (later joined by other British North America, British colonies in North America). The federal framework did not eliminate all tensions, however, leading to the Quebec sovereignty movement in the latter half of the 20th century. Other occasional secessionist movements have included anti-Confederation movements in 19th century Atlantic Canada (see Anti-Confederation Party), the North-West Rebellion of 1885, and various small separatism movements in Alberta particularly (see Alberta separatism) and Western Canada generally (see, for example, Western Canada Concept).Central America
After the 1823 collapse of the First Mexican Empire, the former Captaincy General of Guatemala, Captaincy-General of Guatemala was organized into a new Federal Republic of Central America. In 1838 Nicaragua seceded. The Federal Republic was formally dissolved in 1840, all but one of the states having seceded amidst general disorder.China
* The ''Anti-Secession Law'' against the Taiwan independence movement * Western regions of Xinjiang (East Turkistan) andCongo
In 1960 the State of Katanga declared independence from the Democratic Republic of the Congo.Cyprus
In 1974, Greek Irredentism, irredentists 1974 Cypriot coup d'état, launched a ''coup d'état'' in Cyprus, in an attempt to annex the island with Greece. Almost immediately, the Turkish Armed Forces, Turkish Army Turkish invasion of Cyprus, invaded northern Cyprus to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots, ethnic Turkish minority, who in the following year formed the ''Turkish Federated State of Cyprus'' and in 1983 declared independence as the Northern Cyprus, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, recognized only by Turkey.East Timor
The East Timor, Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (also known as East Timor) has been described as having "seceded" from Indonesia. After Portuguese Timor, Portuguese sovereignty was terminated in 1975, Indonesian occupation of East Timor, East Timor was occupied by Indonesia. However theEthiopia
Following the May 1991 victory of Eritrean People's Liberation Front forces against the communist Derg regime during the Eritrean War of Independence, Eritrea (formerly known as "Medri Bahri") gained de facto independence from Ethiopia. Following the United Nations observed 1993 Eritrean independence referendum, Eritrea gained de jure independence.European Union
Before the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force on 1December 2009 no provision in the Treaties of the European Union, treaties or European Union law, law of the European Union outlined the ability of a state to voluntarily withdraw from the EU. The European Constitution did propose such a provision and, after the failure to ratify the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, that provision was then included in the Lisbon Treaty. The treaty introduces an exit clause for members who wish to withdraw from the Union. This formalises the procedure by stating that a member state may notify the European Council that it wishes to withdraw, upon which withdrawal negotiations begin; if no other agreement is reached the treaty ceases to apply to the withdrawing state two years after such notification. On January 31, 2020, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union. This is informally known asFinland
Finland successfully and peacefully seceded from the newly formed and unstable Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1917, the latter led by Lenin who had goodwill towards the Finns due to their having helped in his revolutionary struggle. Unsuccessful attempts at greater autonomy or peaceful secession had already been made during the preceding Russian Empire but had been denied by the Russian emperor.France
France was one of the European Great Powers with populous foreign empires; like the othersthe United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Belgium and the Netherlands; and formerly Germany and the Ottoman Empirepopulous states abroad have all seceded, in most cases granted independence. These generally took place at similar stages by continent, see decolonization of the Ottoman Empire, Decolonization of the Americas, Americas, Decolonization of Asia, Asia and Decolonization of Africa, Africa. As to France's contiguous state, these have few present representatives at national level, see: * Alsace independence movement * Breton independence * Corsican nationalism * Occitan nationalismGran Colombia
After a decade of tumultuous federalism, Ecuador and Venezuela seceded from Gran Colombia in 1830, leaving the similarly tumultuous United States of Colombia, now the Republic of Colombia which also lost Panama in 1903.India
Pakistan seceded from the British Indian empire in what is known as Partition of India, the Partition. Today, the Constitution of India does not allow States and union territories of India, Indian states to secede from the Union. The Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Indian Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir hosts some paramilitary Kashmiri nationalism, Muslim-state-advocating nationalists, operating against the Indian establishment. They are mostly in the Kashmir Valley, Valley of Kashmir since 1989, where the Indian Army sometimes patrol, having bases along the Line of Control, nearby international border. They are supported via Pakistan which has allegedly funded many terrorist, separatist outfits for destabilising India according to the Research and Analysis Wing, Indian Research and Analysis Wing, though the country denies any direct involvement. The Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir, Kashmir insurgency reached at its peak influence in the 1990s. Other secessionist movements in Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, Indian Punjab, Punjab (known as the Khalistan movement), Mizoram and Tripura, Tamil Nadu . The violent Naxalite–Maoist insurgency operates in East India, eastern rural India is rarely considered secessionist as its goal is to overthrow the government of India. The Communist Party of India (Maoist)'s commanders idealise a Communist state, Communist republic to be made up swathes of India.Iran
Active secession movements include: Iranian Azeri, Assyrian independence movement, Bakhtiary lurs movement in 1876, Iranian Kurdistan; Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran, Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), Khūzestān Province Balochistan and independence movement for free separated Balochistan, (''Arab nationalism, Arab nationalist''); Al-Ahwaz Arab People's Democratic Popular Front, Democratic Solidarity Party of Al-Ahwaz (See Politics of Khūzestān Province#Arab politics and separatism, Politics of Khūzestān Province: Arab politics and separatism), and Balochistan People's Party (BPP) supporting Baloch people, Baloch Baloch nationalism, Separatism.Italy
The Movement for the Independence of Sicily (Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano, MIS) has its roots in the Sicilian Independence Movement of the late 1940s; they have been around for 60 years. Today, the MIS no longer exists, though many other parties have been born. One is Nation Sicily (Sicilia Nazione), which still believes in the idea that Sicily, due to its deeply personal and ancient history, has to be a sovereign country. Moreover, a common ideology shared by all the Sicilian Independentist Movement, Sicilian independentist movements is to fight against Cosa Nostra and all the other Sicilian Mafia, Mafia organizations, that have a very deep influence over Sicily's public and private institutions. Also, the Sicilian branch of the Five Star Movement, which is according to the polls Sicily's most popular party, has publicly expressed the intention to start working for a possible secession from Italy in the case where the Government of Italy, central government would not collaborate in shifting the nation's administrative organization from a unitary country to a federal state. Lega Nord has been seeking the independence of the so-called region of Padania, which includes lands along the Po Valley in northern Italy. Some organizations separately work for the Venetian nationalism, independence of Venetia or Veneto and the South Tyrolean secessionist movement, secession or reunification of South Tyrol with Austria. Lega Nord governing Lombardy has expressed a will to turning the region into a sovereign country. Also the island of Sardinia is home to a notable Sardinian nationalism, nationalist movement. In Southern Italy several movements have expressed a will to secede from Italy. This newborn ideology is so-called neo-Bourbonic, because the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was under the control of the House of Bourbon. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was created in 1816 after the Congress of Vienna, and it comprised both Sicily and continental Southern Italy. The Kingdom came to an end in 1861, being annexed to the newborn Kingdom of Italy. However, the patriotic feelings shared among the southern Italian population is more ancient, starting in 1130 with the Kingdom of Sicily, which was composed by both the island and south Italy. According to the neo-Bourbonic movements the Italian regions which should secede are Sicily, Calabria, Basilicata, Apulia, Molise, Campania, Abruzzo, and Latio's provinces of Province of Rieti, Rieti, Province of Latina, Latina and Province of Frosinone, Frosinone. The major movements and parties which believe in this ideology are Unione Mediterranea, Mo! and Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861, Briganti.Japan
The ethnic Ryukyuan people, Ryukyuan (a branch of modern Okinawan) people had their own state historically (Ryukyu Kingdom). Although some Okinawan people have sought to become independent from Japan since they were annexed by Japan in 1879, and especially after 1972 when the islands were transferred from U.S. rule to Japan, their activism and movement have been consistently supported by single digit of Okinawan people.Malaysia
When racial and PAP-UMNO relations, partisan strife erupted, Singapore Singapore in Malaysia#Expulsion, was expelled from the Malaysian federation in 1965.Mexico
* Republic of Texas, Texas seceded from Mexico in 1836 (see Texas Revolution), after animosity between the Mexican government and the American settlers of the Coahuila y Tejas, Coahuila y Tejas State. It was later annexed by the United States in 1845. * The Republic of the Rio Grande seceded from Mexico on January 17, 1840. It rejoined Mexico on November6 the same year. * After the Federal government, federal system was abandoned by President of Mexico, President Antonio López de Santa Anna, Santa Anna, the Congress of Yucatán approved in 1840 a declaration of independence, establishing the Republic of Yucatán. The Republic rejoined Mexico in 1843.Netherlands
The United Provinces of the Netherlands, commonly referred to historiographically as the 'Dutch Republic', was a federal republic formally established from the formal creation of a federal state in 1581 by several Provinces of the Netherlands, Dutch provinces Dutch Revolt, seceded from Spanish Netherlands, Spain.New Zealand
Secession movements have surfaced several times in the South Island of New Zealand. A Prime Minister of New Zealand, Premier of New Zealand, Sir Julius Vogel, was amongst the first people to make this call, which was voted on by the Parliament of New Zealand as early as 1865. The desire for South Island independence was one of the main factors in moving the capital of New Zealand from Auckland to Wellington in the same year. The NZ South Island Party with a pro-South agenda, fielded only five candidates (4.20% of electoral seats) candidates in the 1999 New Zealand general election, 1999 General Election but achieved only 0.14% (2622 votes) of the general vote. The reality today is that although "South Islanders" are most proud of their geographic region, secession does not carry any real constituency; the party was not able to field any candidates in the 2008 election due to being unable to enlist 500 paying members, a requirement by the New Zealand Electoral commission. The party is treated more as a "joke" party than any real political force.Nigeria
Between 1967 and 1970, the Eastern Region, Nigeria, Eastern Region seceded from Nigeria and established the Biafra, Republic of Biafra, which led to a Nigerian Civil War, war that ended with the state returning to Nigeria. In 1999, at the beginning of a Fourth Nigerian Republic, new democratic regime, other secessionist movements emerged, including the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra, formed as a military wing of the Republic of Biafra.Norway and Sweden
Swedish Empire, Sweden, having left the Kalmar Union with Denmark–Norway in the 16th century, entered into a loose Union between Sweden and Norway, personal union with Kingdom of Norway (1814), Norway in 1814. Following a constitutional crisis, on June 7, 1905 the Storting, Norwegian Storting declared that King Oscar II of Norway, OscarII had failed to fulfill his constitutional duties. He was therefore no longer Monarchy of Norway, King of Norway and because the union depended on the two countries sharing a king, it was thus dissolved. After negotiations Sweden agreed to this on October 26 and on April 14.Pakistan
After the Awami League won the 1970 Pakistani general election, 1970 national elections, negotiations to form a new government floundered, resulting in the Bangladesh Liberation War by which East Pakistan seceded, to become Bangladesh. The Balochistan Liberation Army (also Baloch Liberation Army or Boluchistan Liberation army) (BLA) is a Baloch nationalist militant secessionist organization. The stated goals of the organization include the establishment of an independent state of Balochistan (region), Balochistan free of Pakistani, Iranian and Afghan Federations. The name Baloch Liberation Army first became public in summer 2000, after the organization claimed credit for a series of bomb attacks in markets and removal of railways lines.Papua New Guinea
The island of Bougainville Island, Bougainville has made several efforts to secede from Papua New Guinea.Somalia
Somaliland is an autonomous region, which is part of the Somalia, Federal Republic of Somalia. Those who call the area the ''Republic of Somaliland'' consider it to be the successor state of the former British Somaliland protectorate. Having established its own local government in Somalia in 1991, the region's self-declared independence remains Diplomatic recognition, unrecognized by any country or international organization.South Africa
In 1910, following the British Empire's defeat of the Afrikaners in the Boer Wars, four self-governing colonies in the south of Africa were merged into the Union of South Africa. The four regions were the Cape Colony, Orange Free State, Colony of Natal, Natal and Transvaal Colony, Transvaal. Three other territories, High Commissioner for Southern Africa, High Commission Territories of Bechuanaland (now Botswana), Basutoland (now Lesotho) and Swaziland (now Eswatini) later became independent states in the 1960s. Following the election of the National Party (South Africa), Nationalist government in 1948, some English language, English-speaking whites in Natal advocated either secession or a loose federation. There were also calls for secession, with Natal and the eastern part of the Cape Province breaking away. following the 1960 South African republic referendum, referendum in 1960 on establishing a republic, and in 1993, prior to South Africa's first elections under universal suffrage and the end of apartheid, some Zulu people, Zulu leaders in KwaZulu-Natal considered secession as did some politicians in the Cape Province. In 2008, a political movement calling for the return to independence of the Cape resurged in the shape of the political organisation, the Cape Party. The Cape Party contested their first elections on 22 April 2009. They finished the Western Cape provincial elections in 2019 with 9,331 votes, or 0,45% of votes, gaining no seats The idea has gained popularity in the early half of the 2020s, with polling suggesting that 58% of Western Cape Voters want a referendum on independence in July 2021.South Sudan
A 2011 South Sudanese independence referendum, referendum took place in Southern Sudan from 9to 15 January 2011, on whether the region should remain a part of Sudan or become independent. The referendum was one of the consequences of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, 2005 Naivasha Agreement between the Government of Sudan, Khartoum central government and the South Sudan People's Defence Forces, Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M). A simultaneous referendum was supposed to be held in Abyei on whether to become part of Southern Sudan but it has been postponed due to conflict over demarcation and residency rights. On 7 February 2011, the referendum commission published the final results, with 98.83% voting in favour of independence. While the ballots were suspended in 10 of the 79 counties for exceeding 100% of the voter turnout, the number of votes were still well over the requirement of 60% turnout, and the majority vote for secession is not in question. The predetermined date for the creation of an independent state was 9July 2011.Soviet Union
The Constitution of the Soviet Union guaranteed all Republics of the Soviet Union, SSRs the right to secede from the Union. In 1990, after free elections, the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, Lithuanian SSR Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania, declared independence and other Republics of the Soviet Union, SSRs soon followed. Despite the Soviet central government's refusal to recognize the independence of the republics, the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Soviet Union dissolved in 1991.Spain
Present-day Spain (known officially as "the Spain, Kingdom of Spain") was assembled as a Nation state, central state in the French model between the Nueva Planta decrees, 18th and 1833 territorial division of Spain, 19th centuries from various component kingdoms with varying languages, cultures and legislations. Spain has several List of active separatist movements in Europe#Spain, secessionist movements, the most notable ones being in Catalan separatism, Catalonia, the Basque separatism, Basque Country and Galician independence, Galicia.Sri Lanka
The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, operated a de facto independent state for Tamils called Tamil Eelam in eastern and northern Sri Lanka until 2009.Switzerland
In 1847, seven disaffected Catholic Church in Switzerland, Catholic cantons formed a separate alliance because of moves to change the cantons of Switzerland from a confederation to a more centralized governmentUkraine
In 2014 after the start of Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present), Russian intervention in Ukraine, several groups of people declared independence of several Ukrainian regions: * The Donetsk People's Republic was declared to be independent from Ukraine on 7April 2014, comprising the territory of the Donetsk Oblast. There have been War in Donbas (2014–2022), military confrontations between the Ukrainian Army and the forces of the Donetsk People's Republic when the Ukrainian Government attempted to reassert control over the oblast. * The Lugansk Parliamentary Republic was proclaimed on 27 April 2014. before being succeeded by the Lugansk People's Republic. The Lugansk forces have successfully occupied vital buildings in Lugansk since 8April, and controlled the City Council, prosecutor's office, and police station since 27 April. The Government of the Luhansk Oblast, Lugansk Oblast announced its support for a referendum, and granted the governorship to independence leader Valeriy Bolotov.United Kingdom
The Republic of Ireland withdrew from the United Kingdom after Ireland Proclamation of the Irish Republic, proclaimed independence in 1916 and, as the Irish Free State, gained independence in 1922. The United Kingdom has a number of secession movements: * In Northern Ireland, Irish republicanism, Irish republicans and Irish nationalism, nationalists have long called for the secession of Northern Ireland to join the Republic of Ireland. This is opposed by Unionism in Ireland, Unionists. A minority have supported the Ulster nationalism, independence of Northern Ireland from the United Kingdom without joining the Republic of Ireland. * In Scotland, the Scottish National Party (SNP) campaigns for Scottish independence and direct Scottish membership in the European Union. It has representation at all levels of politics in Scotland, Scottish politics and forms the devolved Scottish government. Later pro-independence parties have had lesser electoral success. The Scottish Greens and the Scottish Socialist Party are most widely publicised. However all independence movements/parties are opposed by Unionism in Scotland, unionists. A 2014 Scottish independence referendum, referendum on independence in which voters were asked "Should Scotland be an independent country?" took place in September 2014. It saw "no" win, as 55.3% of voters voted against independence. * In Wales, Plaid Cymru ''(Party of Wales)'' stands for Welsh independence within the European Union. It is also represented at all levels of Welsh politics and has often been the second largest party in the Senedd (Welsh Parliament). * England: ** In Cornwall, supporters of Mebyon Kernow call for the creation of a Cornish Assembly and separation from England, giving the county significant Cornish self-government movement, self-government, whilst remaining within the United Kingdom as a fifth home nation. ** London has supporters of an independent or semi-autonomous city-state since the 2016 EU Referendum in which Londoners voted overwhelmingly to remain in the EU. A London independence party, known as Londependence, was established in June 2019. Their calls increased after the 2019 United Kingdom general election, 2019 General Election in which most Londoners voted for the Labour Party (UK), Labour Party, gaining a representative, bucking the national trend. ** The Northern Independence Party is a party formed in 2020 that seeks to make Northern England an independent state under the name Northumbria.United States
Discussions and threats of secession often surfaced in Politics of the United States, American politics during the first half of the 19th century, and secession was declared by the Confederate States of America in the Southern United States, South during the American Civil War. However, in 1869, the Supreme Court of the United States, United States Supreme Court ruled in '' Texas v. White'' that unilateral secession was not permitted, saying that the union between a state (Yemen
Yemen Arab Republic, North Yemen and South Yemen merged in 1990; tensions led to a 1994 southern secession which was crushed in a 1994 civil war in Yemen, civil war.Yugoslavia
On June 25, 1991, Croatia and Slovenia seceded from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina and North Macedonia also declared independence, after which the federation broke up, causing the separation of the remaining two countries Serbia and Montenegro. Several Yugoslav Wars, wars ensued between the Serbia and Montenegro, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and seceding entities and among other ethnic groups in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and later, Kosovo. Montenegro peacefully separated from its union with Serbia in 2006. 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence, Kosovo unilaterally declared de facto independence from Serbia on February 17, 2008, and was recognized by several dozen countries, but officially remains under United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, United Nations administration.See also
Lists
* List of historical autonomist and secessionist movements * List of active autonomist and secessionist movements * List of unrecognized countries * List of U.S. state secession proposals * List of U.S. county secession proposalsTopics
* Intersectionality *Movements
* Balochistan Liberation Army * Black Liberation Army * Cape Independence * Cascadia (independence movement), Cascadia * East Turkestan Independence Movement * Essex Junto * European Free Alliance * Free State Project * Hartford Convention * Kurdistan * League of the South * New York City secession * Orania, Northern Cape * Quebec sovereignty movement, Secession of Quebec * Scottish Secession Church * Second Vermont Republic * South Carolina Exposition and Protest * Texas Secession Movement * Tibetan Independence Movement * Unrepresented Nations and Peoples OrganizationNotes
References
Further reading
* Buchanan, Allen, ''Justice, Legitimacy, and Self-Determination: Moral Foundations for International Law (Oxford Political Theory)'', Oxford University Press, 2007. * Buchanan, Allen, ''Secession: The Morality Of Political Divorce From Fort Sumter To Lithuania And Quebec'', Westview Press, 1991. * Coppieters, Bruno; Richard Sakwa, Richard (eds.), ''Contextualizing Secession: Normative Studies in Comparative Perspective'', Oxford University Press, USA, 2003 * Dos Santos, Anne Noronha, ''Military Intervention and Secession in South Asia: The Cases of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Kashmir, and Punjab (Psi Reports)'', Praeger Security International, 2007. * Gordon, David, ''Secession, State and Liberty'', Transactions Publishers, 1998. * Hannum, Hurst, ''Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination: The Accommodation of Conflicting Rights'', University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. * Hawes, Robert F., ''One Nation, Indivisible? A Study of Secession and the Constitution'', Fultus Corporation, 2006. * Jovanovic, Miodrag, ''Constitutionalizing Secession in Federalized States: A Procedural Approach'', Ashgate Publishing, 2006. * Kohen, Marcelo G. (ed.), ''Secession: International Law Perspectives'', Cambridge University Press, 2006. * Kohr, Leopold, ''The Breakdown of Nations'', Routledge & K. Paul, 1957. * Lehning, Percy, ''Theories of Secession'', Routledge, 1998. * López Martín, Ana Gemma and Perea Unceta, José Antonio, ''Statehood and Secession: Lessons from Spain and Catalonia'', Routledge, 2021 * Norman, Wayne, ''Negotiating Nationalism: Nation-Building, Federalism, and Secession in the Multinational State'', Oxford University Press, USA, 2006. * Dmitry Orlov (writer), Orlov, Dimitry,External links