Benjamin Franklin (18th century), many different philosophers, scientists and magicians throughout the 19th and early 20th century up until and after
Harry Houdini. However, skeptics banding together in societies that research the paranormal and fringe science is a modern phenomenon.
Two early important works influential to the skeptical movement were
Daniel Webster Hering's ''Foibles and Fallacies of Science'' (1924) and D. H. Rawcliffe's ''
The Psychology of the Occult''.
Loxton mentions the Belgian
Comité Para
The Comité Para, in full Comité belge pour l'Analyse Critique des parasciences ("Belgian Committee for the Critical Analysis of Parasciences"), is a Francophone Belgian skeptical non-profit organisation. Founded in 1949, the Comité Para regar ...
(1949) as the oldest "broad mandate" skeptical organization.
Although it was preceded by the Dutch
Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij (VtdK) (1881), which is therefore considered the oldest skeptical organization by others,
the VtdK only focuses on fighting quackery, and thus has a 'narrow mandate'. The Comité Para was partly formed as a response to a predatory industry of bogus psychics who were exploiting the grieving relatives of people who had gone missing during the
Second World War
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposi ...
.
In contrast,
Michael Shermer
Michael Brant Shermer (born September 8, 1954) is an American science writer, historian of science, executive director of The Skeptics Society, and founding publisher of ''Skeptic'' magazine, a publication focused on investigating pseudoscientifi ...
traces the origins of the modern scientific skeptical movement to
Martin Gardner
Martin Gardner (October 21, 1914May 22, 2010) was an American popular mathematics and popular science writer with interests also encompassing scientific skepticism, micromagic, philosophy, religion, and literatureespecially the writings of Lew ...
's 1952 book ''
Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science
''Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science'' (1957)—originally published in 1952 as ''In the Name of Science: An Entertaining Survey of the High Priests and Cultists of Science, Past and Present''—was Martin Gardner's second book. A survey o ...
''.
In 1968, the
French Association for Scientific Information (AFIS) was founded. AFIS strives to promote science against those who deny its cultural value, abuse it for criminal purposes or as a cover for
quackery
Quackery, often synonymous with health fraud, is the promotion of fraudulent or ignorant medical practices. A quack is a "fraudulent or ignorant pretender to medical skill" or "a person who pretends, professionally or publicly, to have skill, ...
. According to AFIS, science itself cannot solve humanity's problems, nor can one solve them without using the
scientific method
The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries; see the article history of scientific ...
. It maintains that people should be informed about scientific and technical advancements and the problems it helps to solve. Its magazine, ''Science et pseudo-sciences'', attempts to distribute scientific information in a language that everyone can understand.
CSICOP and contemporary skepticism
In 1976, the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP), known as the
Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) since November 2006, was founded in the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
. Some see this as the "birth of modern skepticism", however, founder
Paul Kurtz
Paul Kurtz (December 21, 1925 – October 20, 2012) was an American scientific skeptic and secular humanist. He has been called "the father of secular humanism". He was Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at the State University of New York at B ...
actually modeled it after the Comité Para, including its name.
Kurtz' motive was being "dismayed ... by the rising tide of belief in the paranormal and the lack of adequate scientific examinations of these claims."
Kurtz was an atheist and had also founded the
Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion
The Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion (CSER) was based at the Center for Inquiry in Amherst, New York, Amherst, New York (state), New York. According to its mission statement, CSER was a research consultation devoted "to the st ...
. While he saw both aspects as being covered in the skeptical movement, he had recommended CSICOP to focus on paranormal and pseudoscientific claims and to leave religious aspects to others.
Despite not being the oldest, CSICOP was "the first successful, broad-mandate North American skeptical organization of the contemporary period", popularized the usage of the terms "skeptic", "skeptical" and "skepticism" by its magazine, ''
Skeptical Inquirer
''Skeptical Inquirer'' is a bimonthly American general-audience magazine published by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) with the subtitle: ''The Magazine for Science and Reason''.
Mission statement and goals
Daniel Loxton, writing in 2 ...
'',
and directly inspired the foundation of many other skeptical organizations throughout the world, especially in Europe.
These included
Australian Skeptics
Australian Skeptics is a loose confederation of like-minded organisations across Australia that began in 1980. Australian Skeptics investigate paranormal and pseudoscientific claims using scientific methodologies. This page covers all Australia ...
(1980),
Vetenskap och Folkbildning (Sweden, 1982),
New Zealand Skeptics (1986),
GWUP (Austria, Germany and Switzerland, 1987),
Skepsis r.y. (Finland, 1987),
Stichting Skepsis (Netherlands, 1987),
CICAP
CICAP (Comitato Italiano per il Controllo delle Affermazioni sulle Pseudoscienze; in English Italian Committee for the Investigation of Claims of the Pseudosciences) is an Italian, non-profit, skeptic educational organization, founded in 1989. CIC ...
(Italy, 1989) and
SKEPP (Dutch-speaking Belgium, 1990).
Besides scientists such as
astronomers
An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies – in either obse ...
, stage magicians like
James Randi
James Randi (born Randall James Hamilton Zwinge; August 7, 1928 – October 20, 2020) was a Canadian-American stage magician, author and scientific skepticism, scientific skeptic who extensively challenged paranormal and pseudoscientific cla ...
were important in investigating charlatans and exposing their trickery. In 1996 Randi formed the
James Randi Educational Foundation
James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) is an American grant-making institution founded in 1996 by magician and skeptic James Randi. As a nonprofit organization, the mission of JREF includes educating the public and the media on the dangers of ...
(JREF) and created the
One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge
The One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge was an offer by the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) to pay out one million U.S. dollars to anyone who could demonstrate a supernatural or paranormal ability under agreed-upon scientific testing ...
, where anyone who could demonstrate paranormal abilities, under mutually agreed-upon controlled circumstances, could claim the prize. After Randi's retirement in 2015, the Paranormal Challenge was officially terminated by the JREF with the prize unclaimed:
Other influential second-generation American organizations were
The Skeptics Society
The Skeptics Society is a nonprofit, member-supported organization devoted to promoting scientific skepticism and resisting the spread of pseudoscience, superstition, and irrational beliefs. The Skeptics Society was co-founded by Michael S ...
(founded in 1992 by
Michael Shermer
Michael Brant Shermer (born September 8, 1954) is an American science writer, historian of science, executive director of The Skeptics Society, and founding publisher of ''Skeptic'' magazine, a publication focused on investigating pseudoscientifi ...
), the
New England Skeptical Society
The New England Skeptical Society (NESS) is an American organization dedicated to promoting science and reason. It was founded in January 1996 as the Connecticut Skeptical Society, by Steven Novella, Perry DeAngelis and Bob Novella. The group la ...
(originating in 1996) and the
Independent Investigations Group
The Center for Inquiry (CFI) is a US nonprofit organization that works to mitigate belief in pseudoscience and the paranormal, as well as to fight the influence of religion in government.
History
The Center for Inquiry was established in ...
(formed in 2000 by
James Underdown
James "Jim" Underdown (born October 9, 1960) has been the executive director of The Center for Inquiry (CFI) West in Los Angeles since 1999. The Center for Inquiry is a non-profit educational organization with headquarters in Amherst, New York ...
).
After 1989
After the
Revolutions of 1989
The Revolutions of 1989, also known as the Fall of Communism, was a revolutionary wave that resulted in the end of most communist states in the world. Sometimes this revolutionary wave is also called the Fall of Nations or the Autumn of Nat ...
, Eastern Europe saw a surge in quackery and paranormal beliefs that were no longer restrained by the generally secular Communist regimes or the Iron curtain and its information barriers. The foundation of many new skeptical organizations was as well intending to
protect consumers. These included the
Czech Skeptics' Club Sisyfos (1995),
the
Hungarian Skeptic Society (2006), the
Polish Sceptics Club (2010)
and the Russian-speaking
Skeptic Society (2013). The Austrian Skeptical Society in Vienna (founded in 2002) deals with issues such as
Johann Grander's "vitalized water" and the use of
dowsing
Dowsing is a type of divination employed in attempts to locate ground water, buried metals or ores, gemstones, oil, claimed radiations ( radiesthesia),As translated from one preface of the Kassel experiments, "roughly 10,000 active dowsers in ...
at the Austrian Parliament''.
The European Skeptics Congress (ESC) has been held throughout Europe since 1989, from 1994 onwards co-ordinated by the
European Council of Skeptical Organizations.
In the United States,
The Amaz!ng Meeting
The Amazing Meeting (TAM), stylized as The Amaz!ng Meeting, was an annual conference that focused on science, skepticism, and critical thinking; it was held for twelve years. The conference started in 2003 and was sponsored by the James Randi Educ ...
(TAM) hosted by the JREF in
Las Vegas
Las Vegas (; Spanish for "The Meadows"), often known simply as Vegas, is the 25th-most populous city in the United States, the most populous city in the state of Nevada, and the county seat of Clark County. The city anchors the Las Vegas ...
had been the most important skeptical conference since 2003, with two spin-off conferences in
London
London is the capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary dow ...
,
UK (2009 and 2010) and one in
Sydney, Australia (2010). Since 2010, the
Merseyside Skeptics Society
The Merseyside Skeptics Society (MSS) is a nonprofit organisation that promotes scientific scepticism in Merseyside and the United Kingdom. Founded in 2009, the society has campaigned against the use of homeopathy, challenged the claims of psy ...
and Greater Manchester Skeptics jointly organized
Question, Explore, Discover (QED) in
Manchester
Manchester () is a city in Greater Manchester, England. It had a population of 552,000 in 2021. It is bordered by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east, and the neighbouring city of Salford to the west. The t ...
, UK. World Skeptics Congresses have been held so far, namely in
Buffalo, New York
Buffalo is the second-largest city in the U.S. state of New York (behind only New York City) and the seat of Erie County. It is at the eastern end of Lake Erie, at the head of the Niagara River, and is across the Canadian border from Sou ...
(1996),
Heidelberg
Heidelberg (; Palatine German language, Palatine German: ''Heidlberg'') is a city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. As of the 2016 census, its population was 159,914 ...
, Germany (1998), Sydney, Australia (2000),
Burbank, California (2002),
Abano Terme
Abano Terme (known as Abano Bagni until 1924) is a town and ''comune'' in the Province of Padua, in the Veneto region, Italy, on the eastern slope of the Euganean Hills; it is southwest by rail from Padua. Abano Terme's population is 19,062 (20 ...
, Italy (2004) and Berlin, Germany (2012).
In 1991, the
Center for Inquiry, a US think-tank, brought the CSICOP and the
Council for Secular Humanism
The Center for Inquiry (CFI) is a US nonprofit organization that works to mitigate belief in pseudoscience and the paranormal, as well as to fight the influence of religion in government.
History
The Center for Inquiry was established in 199 ...
(CSH) under one umbrella. In January 2016, the
Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science
The Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science (RDFRS or RDF) is a division of Center for Inquiry (CFI) founded by British biologist Richard Dawkins in 2006 to promote scientific literacy and secularism.
Originally a non-profit based in ...
announced its merger with the Center for Inquiry.
In 2010, as a form of skeptical outreach to the general population,
Susan Gerbic
Susan Gerbic (born 1962) is an American studio photographer who became known as a scientific skepticism activist, mostly for exposing people claiming to be mediums. A columnist for ''Skeptical Inquirer'', she is the co-founder of Monterey Cou ...
launched the
Guerrilla Skepticism on Wikipedia (GSoW) project to improve skeptical content on Wikipedia.
Notable skeptical media
Books
* ''
The Demon-Haunted World
''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark'' is a 1995 book by the astrophysicist Carl Sagan and co-authored by Ann Druyan, in which the authors aim to explain the scientific method to laypeople and to encourage people to learn c ...
''
* ''
Why People Believe Weird Things
''Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time'' is a 1997 book by science writer Michael Shermer. The foreword was written by Stephen Jay Gould.
Summary
In the first section, Shermer discusses t ...
''
* ''
Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science
''Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science'' (1957)—originally published in 1952 as ''In the Name of Science: An Entertaining Survey of the High Priests and Cultists of Science, Past and Present''—was Martin Gardner's second book. A survey o ...
''
*
''The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe''
Magazines
* ''
Skeptic
Skepticism, also spelled scepticism, is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma. For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the ...
'' (US)
* ''
Skeptical Inquirer
''Skeptical Inquirer'' is a bimonthly American general-audience magazine published by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) with the subtitle: ''The Magazine for Science and Reason''.
Mission statement and goals
Daniel Loxton, writing in 2 ...
''
* ''
The Skeptic'' (UK)
Television programs
* ''
Penn & Teller: Bullshit!''
* ''
MythBusters''
Podcasts
* ''
The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe
''The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe'' (''SGU'') is an American weekly skeptical podcast hosted by Steven Novella, MD, along with a panel of contributors. The official podcast of the New England Skeptical Society, it was named to evoke ''Th ...
''
* ''
Skepticality
''Skepticality'' is the official podcast of The Skeptics Society's ''Skeptic'' magazine. Beginning in May 2005, the podcast explores rational thought, skeptical ideas, and famous myths from around the world and throughout history. Each episode i ...
''
* ''
The Skeptic Zone''
* ''
Skeptoid''
* ''
Point of Inquiry''
* ''
For Good Reason''
See also
References
Notes
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
The Skeptic's Dictionary– Robert Todd Carroll, contains many articles on science, alternative medicine, pseudoscience, etc.
– Michael Shermer, a philosophical analysis of scientific skepticism
Proper Criticism– Ray Hyman, suggestions to upgrade the quality of scientific skepticism
*
Carl Sagan'
Baloney Detection Kit Operation Clambake. 1998. Based on the book "''
The Demon Haunted World: Science as a candle in the dark''". ()
New England Skeptical Society Newsletter Articles– includes articles on such topics as Homeopathy, Intelligent Design, and other pseudoscientific topics
sci.skeptic FAQWhy Is There A Skeptical Movement?– Daniel Loxton, contains an overview of the history (and pre-history) of the skeptical movement as well as the principles underlying scientific skepticism.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Scientific Skepticism
Social movements