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The Sauk or Sac are a group of Native Americans of the
Eastern Woodlands The Eastern Woodlands is a cultural area of the indigenous people of North America. The Eastern Woodlands extended roughly from the Atlantic Ocean to the eastern Great Plains, and from the Great Lakes region to the Gulf of Mexico, which is now p ...
culture group, who lived primarily in the region of what is now
Green Bay, Wisconsin Green Bay is a city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. The county seat of Brown County, it is at the head of Green Bay (known locally as "the bay of Green Bay"), a sub-basin of Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Fox River. It is above sea le ...
, when first encountered by the French in 1667. Their
autonym Autonym may refer to: * Autonym, the name used by a person to refer to themselves or their language; see Exonym and endonym * Autonym (botany), an automatically created infrageneric or infraspecific name See also * Nominotypical subspecies, in zo ...
is oθaakiiwaki, and their
exonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group ...
is Ozaagii(-wag) in
Ojibwe The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains. According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...
. The latter name was transliterated into
French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
and
English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ...
by colonists of those cultures. Today they have three federally recognized tribes, together with the
Meskwaki The Meskwaki (sometimes spelled Mesquaki), also known by the European exonyms Fox Indians or the Fox, are a Native American people. They have been closely linked to the Sauk people of the same language family. In the Meskwaki language, th ...
(Fox), located in
Iowa Iowa () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States, bordered by the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west. It is bordered by six states: Wiscon ...
,
Oklahoma Oklahoma (; Choctaw: ; chr, ᎣᎧᎳᎰᎹ, ''Okalahoma'' ) is a state in the South Central region of the United States, bordered by Texas on the south and west, Kansas on the north, Missouri on the northeast, Arkansas on the east, New ...
and
Kansas Kansas () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its Capital city, capital is Topeka, Kansas, Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita, Kansas, Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebras ...
.


History


Early history

The Sauk, an
Algonquian languages The Algonquian languages ( or ; also Algonkian) are a subfamily of indigenous American languages that include most languages in the Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically simi ...
people, are believed to have developed as a people along the St. Lawrence River, which is now northern New York. The precise time is unknown, but around the time of the year 1600, they were driven from the area of the St. Lawrence river. Some historians believe that the Sauk migrated to what is now eastern
Michigan Michigan () is a state in the Great Lakes region of the upper Midwestern United States. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of nearly , Michigan is the 10th-largest state by population, the 11th-largest by area, and t ...
, where they settled around
Saginaw Bay Saginaw Bay is a bay within Lake Huron located on the eastern side of the U.S. state of Michigan. It forms the space between Michigan's Thumb region and the rest of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Saginaw Bay is in area. It is located in part ...
(Ojibwe: ''Zaagiinaad-wiikwed'' – "Of the Outlet Bay"). For many years, the Sauk are believed to have prospered in the fertile valley of Saginaw thereafter. They had been driven west by pressure from other tribes, especially the powerful
Iroquois League The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian Peoples, Iroquoian-speaking Confederation#Indigenous confederations in North America, confederacy of First Nations in Canada, First Natio ...
or ''
Haudenosaunee The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian Peoples, Iroquoian-speaking Confederation#Indigenous confederations in North America, confederacy of First Nations in Canada, First Natio ...
'', which sought control over hunting grounds in the area. The neighboring Anishanabeg
Ojibwe The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, Chippewa, or Saulteaux are an Anishinaabe people in what is currently southern Canada, the northern Midwestern United States, and Northern Plains. According to the U.S. census, in the United States Ojibwe people are one of ...
(Sauk name: Ochipwêwa) and
Odawa The Odawa (also Ottawa or Odaawaa ), said to mean "traders", are an Indigenous American ethnic group who primarily inhabit land in the Eastern Woodlands region, commonly known as the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. They h ...
peoples referred to them by the
exonym An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group ...
''Ozaagii(-wag)'', meaning "those at the outlet". French colonists transliterated that as ''Sac'' and the English as "Sauk". The Sauk/Sac called themselves the
autonym Autonym may refer to: * Autonym, the name used by a person to refer to themselves or their language; see Exonym and endonym * Autonym (botany), an automatically created infrageneric or infraspecific name See also * Nominotypical subspecies, in zo ...
of Othâkîwa, Thâkîwa, Thâkîwaki or ''Asaki-waki/Oθaakiiwaki'' people of the yellow earth "people_coming_forth_[from_the_outlet"_i.e.,_"from_the_water").html" ;"title="rom_the_outlet.html" ;"title=""people coming forth "people_coming_forth_[from_the_outlet"_i.e.,_"from_the_water")">rom_the_outlet.html"_;"title=""people_coming_forth_[from_the_outlet">"people_coming_forth_[from_the_outlet"_i.e.,_"from_the_water")_which_is_often_interpreted_to_mean_"yellow-earth_people"_or_"the_Yellow-Earths",_due_to_the_yellow-clay_soils_found_around_Saginaw_Bay._This_interpretation_possibly_derived_from_the_Sauk_words_''Athâwethiwa''_or__("yellow")_and_''Neniwaki''_("men,_people")._This_was_later_shortened_to_"Asaki-waki"._In_addition,_the_Meskwaki.html" ;"title="rom the outlet">"people coming forth [from the outlet" i.e., "from the water")">rom_the_outlet.html" ;"title=""people coming forth [from the outlet">"people coming forth [from the outlet" i.e., "from the water") which is often interpreted to mean "yellow-earth people" or "the Yellow-Earths", due to the yellow-clay soils found around Saginaw Bay. This interpretation possibly derived from the Sauk words ''Athâwethiwa'' or ("yellow") and ''Neniwaki'' ("men, people"). This was later shortened to "Asaki-waki". In addition, the Meskwaki">Fox (Meskwaki) were generally known among neighboring tribes as the "people of the red earth" - the Sauk and Fox also used this term: ''Êshkwîha'' or ''Meshkwahkîha'' ("people of the red earth"). Some Ojibwe oral histories also place the Sauk in the Saginaw Valley some time before the arrival of Europeans. Sauk traditions state that the tribe occupied the vicinity of Saginaw river. (In this tradition, the name 'Saginaw' comes from the Ojibwe "O-Sauk-e-non," meaning "land of the Sauks" or "where the Sauks were.") Approximately from the years 1638 to 1640, it is believed that a fierce battle ensued, nearly annihilating the entire Sauk Tribe. The story goes that the Chippewa inhabited the lands north of the Saginaw Bay, and the harsher northern climate caused more difficulty in prosperity compared to that of the Sauk occupying the area of Saginaw Valley. The Chippewa allied with the Ottawa, who resided south of the Sauk, and sprung a series of attacks on the Sauk Tribe which practically decimated their people. One such attack, the Battle of Skull Island, occurred on an island which is now called Skull Island in Michigan. (Its name came from the many skulls and bones supposedly found in mounds on that island over the years.) In this battle, it is said that the Sauk had used their boats to cross part of the river, escape to the island, and were temporarily free from their attackers. But when morning came, ice had solidified the river enough for the Chippewa to cross. They killed every member of the Sauk tribe who had fled to that island besides twelve women whom they later sent west of the Mississippi River. But the Sauk may have been mistakenly recorded as dwelling at this location near
Lake Huron Lake Huron ( ) is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Hydrologically, it comprises the easterly portion of Lake Michigan–Huron, having the same surface elevation as Lake Michigan, to which it is connected by the , Straits of Mack ...
at that time. There is little archaeological evidence that the Sauk lived in the Saginaw area. In the early 17th century, when natives told French explorer Samuel de Champlain that the Sauk nation was located on the west shore of Lake Michigan, Champlain mistakenly placed them on the western shore of
Lake Huron Lake Huron ( ) is one of the five Great Lakes of North America. Hydrologically, it comprises the easterly portion of Lake Michigan–Huron, having the same surface elevation as Lake Michigan, to which it is connected by the , Straits of Mack ...
. This mistake was copied on subsequent maps, and future references identified this as the place of the Sauk. Champlain never visited what is now Michigan.
Anishinaabe The Anishinaabeg (adjectival: Anishinaabe) are a group of culturally related Indigenous peoples present in the Great Lakes region of Canada and the United States. They include the Ojibwe (including Saulteaux and Oji-Cree), Odawa, Potawa ...
expansion and the
Huron Huron may refer to: People * Wyandot people (or Wendat), indigenous to North America * Wyandot language, spoken by them * Huron-Wendat Nation, a Huron-Wendat First Nation with a community in Wendake, Quebec * Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawato ...
attempting to gain regional stability drove the Sac out of their territory. The Huron were armed with guns supplied by their French trading partners. The Sac moved south to territory in parts of what are now northern
Illinois Illinois ( ) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolitan areas include, Peoria and Rock ...
and
Wisconsin Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
. In the seventeenth century the Sauk also maintained close relations with the
Potawatomi The Potawatomi , also spelled Pottawatomi and Pottawatomie (among many variations), are a Native American people of the western Great Lakes region, upper Mississippi River and Great Plains. They traditionally speak the Potawatomi language, a m ...
(Pehkînenîha or Shîshîpêhinenîha). This relation has been found by borrowings of Sauk vocabulary that appear in the
Potawatomi language Potawatomi (, also spelled Pottawatomie; in Potawatomi Bodwéwadmimwen, or Bodwéwadmi Zheshmowen, or Neshnabémwen) is a Central Algonquian language. It was historically spoken by the Pottawatomi people who lived around the Great Lakes in wha ...
. In a loose coalition of tribes – including Dakota (Ashâha), Ojibwe, Odawa, Potawatomi, Kickapoo (Kîkâpôwa), Meskwaki (Fox), and Sauk, along with the
Shawnee The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands. In the 17th century they lived in Pennsylvania, and in the 18th century they were in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, with some bands in Kentucky a ...
(Shâwanôwa),
Cherokee The Cherokee (; chr, ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ, translit=Aniyvwiyaʔi or Anigiduwagi, or chr, ᏣᎳᎩ, links=no, translit=Tsalagi) are one of the indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands of the United States. Prior to the 18th century, th ...
(Shanahkîha), and
Choctaw The Choctaw (in the Choctaw language, Chahta) are a Native American people originally based in the Southeastern Woodlands, in what is now Alabama and Mississippi. Their Choctaw language is a Western Muskogean language. Today, Choctaw people are ...
(Châkitâha) from the Southeast – they attacked the tribes of the Illinois Confederation ("Illinois/Inoca") (Mashkotêwa) and tried to invade their tribal areas. The "Illinois/Inoca" became their worst common enemies. The coalition warred for years until they destroyed the Illinois Confederation. Later they moved out on the
prairie Prairies are ecosystems considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and a composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the ...
(Mashkotêwi) along the Mississippi and adopted the semi-sedentary lifestyle of
Plains Indians Plains Indians or Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies are the Native American tribes and First Nation band governments who have historically lived on the Interior Plains (the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies) of ...
(Mashkotêwineniwa). In addition to hunting buffalo, they lived in villages, raised crops, and actively traded with other tribes. The Sauk and allied eastern tribes had to compete with tribes who already occupied this territory. Disputes and clashes arose with the Dakota, Pawnee (Pânîha) and, most of all, the powerful Osage (Washâsha). The Sauk had good relations with the English (Thâkanâsha) through trading. At first, the Sauk had good relations with
New France New France (french: Nouvelle-France) was the area colonized by France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Great Britain and Spa ...
too, until their alliance with the Meskwaki (Fox) made them short-term enemies of the French (Mêmehtekôshîha, Wêmehtekôshîha). A closely allied tribe, the Meskwaki (Fox), were noted for resisting French encroachment, having fought two wars against them in the early 18th century. After a devastating battle of 9 September 1730, in Illinois, in which hundreds of warriors were killed and many women and children taken captive by French allies, Fox refugees took shelter with the Sac. This made them subject to French attack in turn. The Sac continued moving west to
Iowa Iowa () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States, bordered by the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west. It is bordered by six states: Wiscon ...
and
Kansas Kansas () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its Capital city, capital is Topeka, Kansas, Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita, Kansas, Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebras ...
. Keokuk and
Black Hawk Black Hawk and Blackhawk may refer to: Animals * Black Hawk (horse), a Morgan horse that lived from 1833 to 1856 * Common black hawk, ''Buteogallus anthracinus'' * Cuban black hawk, ''Buteogallus gundlachii'' * Great black hawk, ''Buteogallus urub ...
were two important leaders who arose among the Sauk. At first Keokuk accepted the loss of land as inevitable in the face of the vast numbers of white soldiers and settlers coming west. He tried to preserve tribal land and his people, and to keep the peace. Having failed to receive expected supplies from the Americans on credit, Black Hawk wanted to fight, saying his people were "forced into war by being deceived". Led by Black Hawk in 1832, the mainly Sac band resisted the continued loss of lands (in western Illinois, this time.) Their warfare with United States forces resulted in defeat at the hands of General Edmund P. Gaines in the
Black Hawk War The Black Hawk War was a conflict between the United States and Native Americans led by Black Hawk, a Sauk leader. The war erupted after Black Hawk and a group of Sauks, Meskwakis (Fox), and Kickapoos, known as the "British Band", cross ...
.


Oklahoma history

About this time, one group of Sac moved into Missouri, and later to Kansas and Nebraska. In 1869, after the Civil War, the United States forced the larger group of Sac to move into a reservation in
Indian Territory The Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans who held aboriginal title to their land as a sovereign ...
(now the state of
Oklahoma Oklahoma (; Choctaw: ; chr, ᎣᎧᎳᎰᎹ, ''Okalahoma'' ) is a state in the South Central region of the United States, bordered by Texas on the south and west, Kansas on the north, Missouri on the northeast, Arkansas on the east, New ...
). They merged with the Meskwaki as the federally recognized Sac and Fox Nation. (The United States had been making treaties with the two tribes together since their residency in the Midwest.) A smaller number returned to the Midwest from Oklahoma (or resisted leaving.) They joined the Mesquakie at the Mesqwaki Settlement, Iowa. The land currently occupied by the Sauk is only a section of what used to be the Sac and Fox Reservation during the time of 1867–1891. This reservation was established by the U.S. and spanned 480,000 acres. In 1887, however, the Dawes Act failed to recognize Native American culture by dividing the reservation into small allotments designated for individual households. The remainder of land not allotted to the Sac and Fox was then sold to non-Native settlers in an attempt to gain Oklahoma statehood and the full assimilation of its Native American population. By 1889, 519 of the tribe were located in Indian Territory, what is now central Oklahoma. On June 10, 1890, they ceded these Indian Territory lands to the federal government.


Treaties with U.S.

Many of the latter treaties listed have little to no information regarding their details, besides the date. In total, twenty two treaties were signed from 1789 to, more than a century later, 1891. * Treaty of Fort Harmar * Treaty of Greenville * Treaty of St. Louis (1804) * Treaty of Portage des Sioux * Treaty of St. Louis (1816) * Treaty of St. Louis (1822) * Treaty of Washington * First Treaty of Prairie du Chien * Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien * 1832 Treaty * September 27, 1836 Treaty * September 28, 1836 Treaty * September 28, 1836 Treaty * 1837 Treaty * 1837 Treaty * 1842 Treaty * 1854 Treaty (Missouri Sac and Fox) * 1859 Treaty * 1861 Treaty (Iowa Sac and Fox) * Feb 18th, 1867 * June 10, 1872 "Act of Congress" (Missouri Sac and Fox) * Feb 13th, 1891 "Act of Congress"


Clan system

The Sauk and Fox peoples were divided into two moieties or "divisions", which in turn were subdivided into Patri-lineages and
Clan A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, clans may claim descent from founding member or apical ancestor. Clans, in indigenous societies, tend to be endogamous, mea ...
s as local subgroups (segments). The moieties were known as the ''Kishko/Ki-sko-ha/Kîshkôha'' (male: ''Kîshkôha'', female: ''Kîshkôhkwêha'') ("the long-haired") and as the ''Oskush/Askasa/Shkasha'' (male: ''Shkasha/Oshkashîwiwa'', female: ''Shkashîhkwêwa/Oshkashîhkwêwiwa'') ("the brave"). The two moieties were each symbolized by two colors: The ''Askasa/Shkasha'' painted their faces and partly their bodies with charcoal in ''mahkatêwâwi'' (black) and the ''Ki-sko-ha/Kîshkôha'' painted their bodies with white clay in ''wâpeshkyâwi'' (white). This duality was also celebrated by the two moieties in
Lacrosse Lacrosse is a team sport played with a lacrosse stick and a lacrosse ball. It is the oldest organized sport in North America, with its origins with the indigenous people of North America as early as the 12th century. The game was extensiv ...
, which was often played extremely brutally to toughen young warriors for combat, for recreation, as part of festivals, and used as preparation for imminent wars or raids. This division has survived to the present day, but is now more related to the political system of the United States: the supporters of the Democratic Party are associated with the ''Kîshkôha/Kîshkôhkwêha'', while the supporters of the
Republican Party Republican Party is a name used by many political parties around the world, though the term most commonly refers to the United States' Republican Party. Republican Party may also refer to: Africa * Republican Party (Liberia) *Republican Party ...
are associated with the ''Shkasha/Shkashîhkwêwa''. Originally, the Sauk had a
patrilineal Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritan ...
and
exogamous Exogamy is the social norm of marrying outside one's social group. The group defines the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity. One form of exogamy is dual exogamy, in which two groups ...
clan system, in which descent and inheritance was traced through the father. Clans or ''Mîthonî'' distinguished and named on the basis of totem animals, which are: ''Mahkwithowa'' (Bear Clan), ''Amehkwithowa'' (Beaver Clan), ''Peshekethiwithowa'' (Deer Clan), ''Ketiwithowa / Mekethiwithowa'' (Eagle Clan), ''Nemêthithowa'' (Fish Clan), ''Wâkoshêhithowa'' (Fox Clan), ''Kehchikamîwithowa'' (Ocean/Sea/Great Lake Clan), ''Keshêhokimâwithowa'' (Peace Clan), ''Ahpenîthowa'' (Potato Clan), ''Akônithowa'' (Snow Clan), ''Nenemehkiwithowa'' (Thunder Clan), ''Manethenôkimâwithowa'' (Warrior Clan), and ''Mahwêwithowa'' (Wolf Clan). Saukenuk or Saukietown (today: Black Hawk State Historic Site) near the mouth of the Rock River (''Sinnissippi'' – "rocky waters") into the
Mississippi Mississippi () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered to the north by Tennessee; to the east by Alabama; to the south by the Gulf of Mexico; to the southwest by Louisiana; and to the northwest by Arkansas. Miss ...
(''Mäse'sibowi'' – "great river"), the most important Sauk settlement in the 18th and 19th centuries with about 4,000 inhabitants, was divided into 12 districts, which were assigned to the respective clans. The tribe was governed by a council of sacred clan chiefs, a war chief, the head of families, and the warriors. Chiefs were recognized in three categories: civil, war, and ceremonial. Only the civil chiefs were hereditary. The other two chiefs were recognized by bands after they demonstrated their ability or spiritual power. This traditional manner of selecting historic clan chiefs and governance was replaced in the 19th century by the United States appointing leaders through their agents at the Sac and Fox Agency, or reservation in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). In the 20th century, the tribe adopted a constitutional government patterned after the United States form. They elect their chiefs.


Federally recognized tribes

Today the federally recognized Sac and Fox tribes are: * Sac and Fox Nation ( sac, Othâkîwaki, ''meaning: "People of the yellow earth"''), headquartered in Stroud, Oklahoma; * Sac and Fox Tribe of the Mississippi in Iowa ( sac, Meshkwahkîhaki, ''meaning: "People of the red earth"''), headquartered in
Tama, Iowa Tama is a city in Tama County, Iowa, United States. The population was 3,130 at the time of the 2020 census. Tama is situated two miles south of Toledo, the county seat. The two towns are close enough to have nearly grown together over the ye ...
; and *
Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska The Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska is one of three federally recognized Native American tribes of Sac and Meskwaki (Fox) peoples. Their name for themselves is Nemahahaki ( sac, Nîmahâhaki) and they are an Algonquian ...
( sac, Nîmahâhaki), headquartered in Reserve, Kansas.


Language

Sauk is a dialect of the Fox language, one of the many
Algonquian languages The Algonquian languages ( or ; also Algonkian) are a subfamily of indigenous American languages that include most languages in the Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically simi ...
. It is very closely related to the dialects spoken by the
Meskwaki The Meskwaki (sometimes spelled Mesquaki), also known by the European exonyms Fox Indians or the Fox, are a Native American people. They have been closely linked to the Sauk people of the same language family. In the Meskwaki language, th ...
and the Kickapoo tribes. Each of the dialects contains archaisms and innovations that distinguish them from each other. Sauk and Meskwaki appear to be the most closely related of the three, reflecting the peoples' long relationship. Sauk is considered to be mutually intelligible, to a point, with Fox. In their own language, the Sauk at one time called themselves ''asakiwaki'' -'sak-i-wa-ki "people of the outlet". The Sauk people have a syllabic orthography for their language. They published a Primer Book in 1975, based on a "traditional" syllabary that existed in 1906. It is intended to help modern-day Sauk to learn to write and speak their ancestral tongue. A newer orthography was proposed around 1994 to aid in language revival. The former syllabary was aimed at remaining native speakers of Sauk; the more recent orthography was developed for native English speakers, as many Sauk grow up with English as their first language Sauk has so few speakers that it is considered an endangered language, as are numerous others native to North America. In 2005, ''A Concise Dictionary of the Sauk Language'' was published using the Algonquianist Standard Roman Orthography. In 2012, Shawnee High School in
Shawnee, Oklahoma Shawnee ( sac, Shânîheki) is a city in Pottawatomie County, Oklahoma, United States. The population was 29,857 in 2010, a 4.9 percent increase from the figure of 28,692 in 2000. The city is part of the Oklahoma City-Shawnee Combined Statistical ...
, began to offer a Sauk language course.


Sauk language loss

Use of Sauk as the official tribal language in everyday communication declined rapidly between 1935 and 1945. The chances of coming across a tribal member who can understand basic phrases of Sauk is small, due to the fact that the main language spoken by the Sac and Fox today is English. The loss of Sauk, as with many other Native American languages, lies in context with American history. Speaking in the native language was actively discouraged and often punished in Indian boarding schools during the late 19th and early 20th century, when the U.S. was attempting to assimilate Native Americans into European-American culture. Another conflict for the preservation of the language, is that the original syllabary created was intended for the use of native Sauk speakers, and its clarification was designed from the Sauk language. This is a problem because this is no longer as helpful for the majority of the Sac and Fox nation, as the official tribe language today is English. The issue arises in instances when Sauk is being taught to a school in the tribe, and an elder, who is fluent in the language, disagrees with the pronunciation being taught.


Phonology

Sauk does not have many
phoneme In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language. For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-wes ...
s in comparison to many other languages: four vowels, two semivowels, and nine consonants.


Consonants

The following consonant phonemes are given in Reinschmidt (1995): The representation of was omitted in the 1977 syllabary. It was added back in later editions because it is an important distinctive sound in the Sauk language. Reinschmidt symbolizes as /y/, following Americanist practice. All four stops have at least two allophones each, one fortis and one lenis: :: → :: → :: → :: → Reinschmidt symbolizes as /y/, following Americanist practice.


Vowels

Vowel length is important in the Sauk language because of its distinctive function. Long vowels are often distinguished by the doubling of characters, such as ''a / aa'' representing two different spoken lengths. This is different for the vowel ''e'', as an elongated version of this vowel shares the sound of the vowel in the English word ''bear''. Reinschmidt presents four vowels, each with two allophones: :: → :: → :: → :: →


Pitch and tone

Pitch and tone are important when speaking Sauk, as there is a general rule of emphasizing the first or second syllable of phrases, and slowly fades away by the end of a word. The Sauk language is perceived as having a "swallowed" quality when referring to the ends of phrases and words, so pitch, tone and intonation is a concept that would come from learning the language as opposed to studying the syllabary.


Syllables

Both the Sauk and Fox languages are known for "swallowing" syllables in word-final position, which can make identification of individual sounds more difficult for the language learner.


Morphology

Sauk is a
polysynthetic language In linguistic typology, polysynthetic languages, formerly holophrastic languages, are highly synthetic languages, i.e. languages in which words are composed of many morphemes (word parts that have independent meaning but may or may not be able ...
. Because this can easily pose great difficulties to learners with little to no experience with highly synthetic languages, the Sauk orthography has words written by identifying each syllable.


Orthography

Two samples of written Sauk language, as they appear in: ''Ho! Ne nu ta ma''! 'Hi! I speak Sauk!' ''Ni swi me cli ke a ki a la se te ke wa ki a la te ki ki'' ''e ka ta wi ke mi yak i e we li ke mi ya ki ne ko ti'' ''me cle ke a e cla gwe ne mo tti wi ne li wi tti cle we na'' ''li ta ske wa ne li se ke'' "Two turtles were sunning on a bank when a thunderstorm approached. When it began to rain, one turtle said to the other, 'I don't want to get wet,' and jumped into the lake."


Geographical names

Lake Osakis Lake Osakis is a lake in Todd and Douglas counties in west-central Minnesota. The town of Osakis is situated on the southwest shore of the lake. Name The lake received its English name by translation from the Ojibwe ''Ozaagi-zaaga'igan'', mean ...
in west-central
Minnesota Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over t ...
, the Sauk River, which flows from Lake Osakis, and the towns of Osakis, Sauk Centre, and
Sauk Rapids Sauk Rapids is a city in Benton County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 13,862 at the 2020 census and is 13,896 according to 2021 census estimates, about a third of Benton County's population. It is on a set of rapids on the Mis ...
all were named for association historically with a small party of Sac who made camp on the shores of Lake Osakis. They had been banished from their tribe for murder. According to
Anishinaabe The Anishinaabeg (adjectival: Anishinaabe) are a group of culturally related Indigenous peoples present in the Great Lakes region of Canada and the United States. They include the Ojibwe (including Saulteaux and Oji-Cree), Odawa, Potawa ...
oral tradition, these five Sac were killed by local Dakota in the late 18th century. Place names with "Sauk" references include: *Iowa: Sac City, Sac County, and Sac Township. *Illinois: Sauk Village; Sauk Valley: the cities of
Dixon Dixon may refer to: Places International * Dixon Entrance, part of the Inside Passage between Alaska and British Columbia Canada * Dixon, Ontario United States * Dixon, California * Dixon, Illinois * Dixon, Greene County, Indiana * Dixon, In ...
, Sterling, Rock Falls and the surrounding area; Sauk Trail, a winding road south of Chicago, said to follow an old Indian trail
Johnson-Sauk Trail State Recreation Area
and Black Hawk College oline and Kewanee, IL *Michigan: The name of Saginaw is believed to mean "where the Sauk were" in Ojibwe; and the
Saginaw Trail Saginaw Trail is the collective name for a set of connected roads in Southeast and Central Michigan that runs from Detroit to Saginaw through Pontiac and Flint that was originally a tribal foot trail. To drive it today, drivers would follow: * fro ...
is said to follow an ancient Native American trail. US Route 12 in Michigan is said to follow the Sauk Native American trail. *Minnesota: City of Sauk Centre, Le Sauk and Little Sauk townships,
Lake Osakis Lake Osakis is a lake in Todd and Douglas counties in west-central Minnesota. The town of Osakis is situated on the southwest shore of the lake. Name The lake received its English name by translation from the Ojibwe ''Ozaagi-zaaga'igan'', mean ...
, Sauk River,
Sauk Rapids Sauk Rapids is a city in Benton County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 13,862 at the 2020 census and is 13,896 according to 2021 census estimates, about a third of Benton County's population. It is on a set of rapids on the Mis ...
. *Missouri: Sac Township, Sac River and
Little Sac River The Little Sac River is a stream in Greene, Polk and Dade counties the Ozarks of southwest Missouri, U.S.A. The stream source coordinates are: and the confluence coordinates are: . The Little Sac headwaters start with an intermittent stream ju ...
of southwest Missouri *North Dakota: Sauk Prairie and Sauk Valley Township *Wisconsin:
Prairie du Sac Prairie du Sac is a village in Sauk County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 4,420 at the 2020 census. The village is surrounded by the Town of Prairie du Sac, the Wisconsin River, and the village of Sauk City; together, Prairie du ...
, Sauk City,
Saukville Saukville is a village in Ozaukee County, Wisconsin, United States. Located on the Milwaukee River with a district along Interstate 43, the community is a suburb in the Milwaukee metropolitan area. The population was 4,451 at the 2010 census. ...
,
Sauk County Sauk County is a county in Wisconsin. It is named after a large village of the Sauk people. As of the 2020 census, the population was 65,763. Its county seat and largest city is Baraboo. The county was created in 1840 from Wisconsin Territor ...
and Ozaukee County


Notable people

*
Black Hawk Black Hawk and Blackhawk may refer to: Animals * Black Hawk (horse), a Morgan horse that lived from 1833 to 1856 * Common black hawk, ''Buteogallus anthracinus'' * Cuban black hawk, ''Buteogallus gundlachii'' * Great black hawk, ''Buteogallus urub ...
* Keokuk *
Do-Hum-Me Do-Hum-Me (1825–1843) was the daughter of the chief of the Sauk Native American tribe. In 1843, she accompanied her father in a trip east to Princeton, New Jersey for treaty negotiations. While there, she met and fell in love with an Iowa trib ...
* Quashquame *
Jim Thorpe James Francis Thorpe ( Sac and Fox (Sauk): ''Wa-Tho-Huk'', translated as "Bright Path"; May 22 or 28, 1887March 28, 1953) was an American athlete and Olympic gold medalist. A member of the Sac and Fox Nation, Thorpe was the first Native ...


See also

*
African-Native Americans Black Indians are Native American people – defined as Native American due to being affiliated with Native American communities and being culturally Native American – who also have significant African American heritage. Historically, certai ...
*
Algonquian languages The Algonquian languages ( or ; also Algonkian) are a subfamily of indigenous American languages that include most languages in the Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically simi ...
* Sac and Fox Nation * Kickapoo *
Meskwaki The Meskwaki (sometimes spelled Mesquaki), also known by the European exonyms Fox Indians or the Fox, are a Native American people. They have been closely linked to the Sauk people of the same language family. In the Meskwaki language, th ...
*
Native Americans in the United States Native Americans, also known as American Indians, First Americans, Indigenous Americans, and other terms, are the Indigenous peoples of the mainland United States ( Indigenous peoples of Hawaii, Alaska and territories of the United States ...
* Native American tribes * Native American tribes in Nebraska * One Drop Rule *
Saginaw Trail Saginaw Trail is the collective name for a set of connected roads in Southeast and Central Michigan that runs from Detroit to Saginaw through Pontiac and Flint that was originally a tribal foot trail. To drive it today, drivers would follow: * fro ...
* Sauk Trail


Notes

:1. The name of the Sauk River in Washington State, however, comes from the ''Sah-kee-ma-hu'' (Sauk-Suiattle tribe), a group related to the Skagit tribes, not from the Sac tribe of the Midwestern U.S.


References


External links


Official Site of the Sac and Fox Tribe of the Mississippi in Iowa/Meskwaki Nation – the Meskwaki

Official Site of the Sac and Fox Nation (of Oklahoma) – the Thakiwaki or Sa ki wa ki

Official Site of the Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska – the Ne ma ha ha kiSauk Language
Sac and Fox Nation {{DEFAULTSORT:Sac (People) Algonquian peoples Native American tribes in Iowa Native American tribes in Kansas Native American tribes in Missouri Native American tribes in Nebraska Black Hawk War Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands Algonquian ethnonyms Native American tribes in Illinois Native American tribes in Wisconsin Native Americans in the American Revolution