Etymology
is a compound term that has been parsed (and thus translated) in two ways, namely ' and '. The separate terms can be translated as follows: * ''Sati'' – Pali; Sanskrit smṛti. ''Smṛti'' originally meant "to remember", "to recollect", "to bear in mind", as in the Vedic tradition of remembering the sacred text; the term ''sati'' also means "to remember". According to Sharf, in the ''Satipațțhāna-sutta'' the term ''sati'' means to remember the wholesome dhammās, whereby the true nature of phenomena can be seen, such as the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening-factors, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the attainment of insight. Usually, ''sati'' is interpreted as observing and watching various phenomena or domains of experience, being aware and attentive of them in the present moment. * ' (Sanskrit: upasthāna) – "attendance, waiting on, looking after, service, care, ministering" * ' – "setting forth, putting forward"; in later Buddhist literature also "origin", "starting point", "cause". The compound terms have been translated as follows: *' – "presence of mindfulness" or "establishment of mindfulness" or "arousing of mindfulness", underscoring the mental qualities co-existent with or antecedent to mindfulness. *' – "foundation of mindfulness", underscoring the object used to gain mindfulness. While the latter parsing and translation is more traditional, the former has been given etymological and contextual authority by contemporary Buddhist scholars such as Bhikkhu Analayo and Bhikkhu Bodhi. Anālayo argues from an etymological standpoint that, while "foundation of mindfulness" is supported by the Pāli commentary, the term ' (foundation) was otherwise unused in the Pāli nikayas and is only first used in the Abhidhamma. In contrast, the term ' (presence or establishment) can in fact be found throughout the nikayas and is readily visible in the Sanskrit equivalents of the compound Pāli phrase ' (Skt., ' or '). Thus Anālayo states that "presence of mindfulness" (as opposed to "foundation of mindfulness") is more likely to be etymologically correct. Like Anālayo, Bodhi assesses that "establishment [] of mindfulness" is the preferred translation. However, Bodhi's analysis is more contextual than Anālayo's. According to Bodhi, while "establishment of mindfulness" is normally supported by the textual context, there are exceptions to this rule, such as with SN 47.42 where a translation of "foundation of mindfulness" is best supported. Soma uses both "foundations of mindfulness" and "arousing of mindfulness."
The term ''sati'' (Sanskrit: '' smṛti''), which is often translated as mindfulness, also means memory and recollection, and it is often used in that sense in the early discourses, which sometimes define ''sati'' as "the ability of calling to mind what has been done or said long ago." According to Sharf, in the ''Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta'', the term ''sati'' means to remember the dharmas, which allows one to see the true nature of phenomena. According to Anālayo, sati does not literally mean memory, but "that which facilitates and enables memory." This is particularly applicable in the context of satipaṭṭhāna, in which sati does not refer to remembering past events, but an "awareness of the present moment", and to remember to stay in that awareness (especially if one's attention wanders away). Anālayo states that it is this clear and awake state of presence is that allows one to easily remember whatever is experienced. He also states that sati is a detached, uninvolved and non-reactive observation which does not interfere with what it is observing (such an active function is instead associated with right effort, not mindfulness). This allows one to clearly attend to things in a more sober, objective and impartial manner. Regarding ''upaṭṭhāna,'' Anālayo writes that it means "being present" and "attending" in this context. He further states: "Understood in this way, "satipaṭṭhāna" means that sati "stands by", in the sense of being present; sati is "ready at hand", in the sense of attending to the current situation. Satipaṭṭhāna can then be translated as "presence of mindfulness" or as "attending with mindfulness." Paul Williams (referring to Frauwallner) states that satipaṭṭhāna practice refers to "constantly watching sensory experience in order to prevent the arising of cravings which would power future experience into rebirths." Rupert Gethin, who argues that satipaṭṭhāna is derived from ''sati''+''upaṭṭhāna'', sees satipaṭṭhāna as "the activity of observing or watching the body, feelings, mind and dhammas," as well as "a quality of mind that 'stands near'" (the literal meaning of ''upaṭṭhāna'') or "serves' the mind," and even "presence of mind".Gethin (2001), pp. 30–32. Gethin further notes that sati ('mindfulness') refers to "remembering" or "having in mind" something. It is keeping something in mind without wavering or losing it. Bhikkhu Bodhi writes that sati is "a presence of mind, attentiveness or awareness" as well as "''bare attention'', a detached observation of what is happening within us and around us in the present moment ..the mind is trained to remain in the present, open, quiet, alert, contemplating the present event."Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2010). ''The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering.'' pp. 79–80. Buddhist Publication Society. He also states that sati is "what brings the field of experience into focus and makes it accessible to insight." According to Bodhi, to be mindful, "all judgements and interpretations have to be suspended, or if they occur, just registered and dropped." Bhante Gunaratana explains ''satipaṭṭhāna'' practice as bringing full awareness to our present moment bodily and mental activities. According to Sujato, mindfulness is "the quality of mind which recollects and focuses awareness within an appropriate frame of reference, bearing in mind the what, why, and how of the task at hand."
Textual accounts
Early Buddhist texts
In theScholastic and Abhidhamma texts
The four satipaṭṭhāna are analyzed and systematized in the scholastic and Abhidharma works of the various Buddhist schools. In these later texts, various doctrinal developments can be seen. The satipaṭṭhānas can be found in the ''In the early teachings satipaṭṭhāna was primarily associated not with vipassanā but with samatha. Since for the Suttas, samatha and vipassanā cannot be divided, a few passages show how this samatha practice evolves into vipassanā. In later literature the vipassanā element grew to predominate, almost entirely usurping the place of samatha in satipaṭṭhāna.Sujato (2012), p. 133.Tse-fu Kuan agrees, noting that "the tendency to dissociate satipaṭṭhāna from samatha is apparently a rather late development." According to Sujato, various canonical texts which show sectarian Theravada elements consistently depict satipaṭṭhāna as more closely aligned with vipassanā practice. However, in the canonical Abhidhamma, satipaṭṭhāna is still said to be associated with jhana as well. For example, according to Kuan, the Vibhanga "says that when a monk attains the first jhāna and contemplates the body (feelings, etc.) as a body (feelings, etc.), at that time sati, anussati, etc. are called 'satipaṭṭhāna.'" Meanwhile, the canonical Abhidharma texts of the Sarvāstivāda tradition consistently interpreted the ''smṛtyupasthānas'' as being a practice that was associated with samadhi and dhyana. This can be seen in the '' Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra,'' which contains a section on how to practice the ''smṛtyupasthānas'' in the context of the four dhyanas and the formless attainments. In the later texts of the
Mahayana texts
Mahayana Buddhist texts also contain teachings on the four ''smṛtyupasthānas.'' These include the '' Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra,'' Asanga's '' Abhidharmasamuccaya,'' the '' Yogācārabhūmi'', Vasubandhu's '' Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya'', the '' Avataṁsaka Sūtra'', and Santideva's ''Śikṣāsamuccaya.'' Furthermore, Nagarjuna's ''Letter to a Friend'' contains a passage which affirms the early Buddhist understanding of the four ''smṛtyupasthānas'' as closely connected with samādhi: "he persevering practice (of ''smṛtyupasthāna'') is called ‘samādhi’." Another parallel passage of the satipaṭṭhāna schema can be found in the ''Pañcavimsatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā sutra''.Anālayo (2006), p. 16. Another passage is found in the '' Śrāvakabhūmi.''Elements in the early texts
The various early sources for satipaṭṭhāna provide an array of practices for each domain of mindfulness. Some of these sources are more elaborate and contain more practices than others. The table below contains the main elements found in the various early Buddhist sources on the satipaṭṭhānas. Various scholars have attempted to use the numerous early sources to trace an " ur-text" i.e. the original satipaṭṭhāna formula or the earliest sutta. Bronkhorst (1985) argues that the earliest form of the satipaṭṭhāna sutta only contained the observation of the impure body parts under mindfulness of the body, and that mindfulness of dhammas was originally just the observation of the seven awakening factors. Sujato's reconstruction similarly only retains the contemplation of the impure under mindfulness of the body, while including only the five hindrances and the seven awakening factors under mindfulness of dhammas. According to Analayo, mindfulness of bresthing was probably absent from the original scheme, noting that one can easily contemplate the body's decay taking an external object, that is, someone else's body, but not be externally mindfull of the breath, thst is, someone else's breath.Connection with other Buddhist teachings
Gradual training
The satipaṭṭhānas are one of the seven sets of " states conducive to awakening" (Pāli '' bodhipakkhiyādhammā'') identified in many schools of Buddhism as means for progressing toward ''bodhi'' ( awakening). The early sources also contain passages in whichJhana
In the schema of the Noble Eightfold Path, they are included in ''sammā-sati'' (right mindfulness), which culminates in the final factor of the path, ''sammā- samādhi'' (a state of luminous awareness, but also interpreted as deep meditative absorption). This is confirmed by texts like MN 44.12 which state "the four satipaṭṭhānas are the basis for samādhi." The close connection between satipaṭṭhāna and samādhi can also be seen in texts which discuss the three trainings (such as MN 44.11/MA 210) which list satipaṭṭhāna under samādhi. Thus, according to Bhikkhu Sujato, "all of the basic statements on the function of satipaṭṭhāna in the path confirm that its prime role is to support samādhi, that is, jhāna." Rupert Gethin also affirms the close connection between satipaṭṭhāna and the jhanas, citing various discourses from the Pali Nikayas (such as SN 47.10 and SN 47.8). In the oldest texts ofAs four domains of mindfulness
The four domains
In the early Buddhist texts, mindfulness is explained as being established in four main ways: # mindfulness of the body (Pāli: ''kāyagatā-sati''; Skt. ''kāya-smṛti''), # mindfulness of feelings (Pāli '' vedanā-sati''; Skt. ''vedanā-smṛti''), # mindfulness of the mind (Pāli ''Mindfulness of the body
The various early sources show considerable variation in the practices included under mindfulness of the body. The most widely shared set of meditations are the contemplation of the body's anatomical parts, the contemplation of the elements, and the contemplation of a corpse in decay. Anālayo notes that the parallel versions of the ''Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta'' "agree not only in listing these three exercises, but also in the sequence in which they are presented." According to Sujato's comparative study of satipaṭṭhāna, the original mindfulness of the body practice focused on contemplating various parts of the body, while the other practices later came to be added under mindfulness of the body.Body parts
The practice of mindfulness of anatomical parts is described in the ''Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta'' as follows: ''"''one examines this same body up from the soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair, enclosed by skin and full of many kinds of impurity." Following this instruction is a list of various body parts, including hair, skin, teeth, numerous organs as well as different kinds of bodily liquids. According to Anālayo, this meditation, which is often called the meditation on " asubha" (the unattractive), is supposed to deconstruct notions of bodily beauty and to allow us to see that bodies are "not worth being attached to" (as the ''Ekottarika-āgama'' version states). Ultimately, according to Anālayo, "the principal aim of contemplating the anatomical constitution of the body is the removal of sensual desire." Sujato similarly states that the basic purpose of these three meditations "is to rise above sensuality," and to deprive "the addiction to sensual gratification" of its fuel. According to U Sīlānanda, first one should memorize the 32 parts of the body by reciting them, then one learns the color, shape and location of each part. After achieving mastery in this, one is ready to contemplate the unattractiveness of each part in meditation. Bhikkhu Bodhi notes that this practice is done "using visualization as an aid." This practice is described with a common simile in the early discourses: one is mindful of each body part in the same way one is mindful when looking through various kinds of beans (or grains) in a bag (i.e. in a detached way). This indicates that the goal is not to become disgusted with the body but to see it in a detached manner. Bhante Gunaratana similarly notes that this practice "opens the mind to accepting our body as it is right now, without our usual emotional reactions. It helps us overcome pride and self-hatred and regard our body with the balanced mind of equanimity." Similarly, Thanissaro Bhikkhu argues that this practice, far from creating a negative self-image, allows us to develop a healthy understanding of the reality that all bodies are equal (and thus none is superior or inferior in terms of beauty, since such a concept is ultimate relative to one's frame of reference).Elements
The practice of mindfulness of the elements or properties mainly focuses on four physical attributes ('' mahābhūta''): earth (solids), water (liquids), air (gases moving in and outside the body, as well as breathing) and fire (warmth/temperature). The early texts compare this to how a butcher views and cuts up a slaughtered cow into various parts. According to Anālayo this second exercise focuses on diminishing the sense of identification with the body and thus, on seeing anatta (not-self) and undoing the sense of ownership to the body. Buddhaghosa states that through this practice a monk "immerses himself in voidness and eliminates the perception of living beings." U Sīlānanda (2012), pp. 65–70 The practice of contemplating these four properties is also described in more detail in the ''Mahāhaṭṭthipadopama Sutta,'' the ''Rāhulovāda Sutta,'' and the ''Dhātuvibhaṅga Sutta''.Corpse
The practice of mindfulness of death is explained as contemplating a corpse various progressive stages of decay (from a fresh corpse to bone dust). According to Anālayo, the sources indicate that the practice could have been done in a charnel ground with real corpses but also indicate that one may visualize this as well.Anālayo (2013), pp. 97–101. Bodhi writes that this practice can be done in the imagination, through using pictures or by viewing an actual formerly living human corpse. The various early sources all indicate that one should contemplate how one's own body is of the same nature as the corpse. The ''Ekottarika-āgama'' version states that one is to contemplate how "my body will not escape from this calamity", "I will not escape from this condition. My body will also be destroyed," and "this body is impermanent, of a nature to fall apart." This practice allows one to gain insight into our own impermanence, and therefore also leads to letting go. In numerous early sources, contemplating the inevitability of death is also said to lead to increased motivation to practice the path.Overall direction
Anālayo sums up the overall direction of mindfulness of the body as "detachment from the body through understanding its true nature." The early discourses compare mindfulness of the body to a strong pillar which can be used to tie up numerous wild animals (which are compared to the six senses). This simile shows that mindfulness of the body was seen as a powerful centering practice and as a strong anchor for maintaining the guarding of the senses. The Kāyagatāsati-sutta and its Madhyama-āgama parallel also list various others benefits from practicing mindfulness of the body, including how it helps to give rise to mental balance and detachment and allows one to endure many physical discomforts.Mindfulness of feelings
This satipaṭṭhāna focuses on the contemplation of "feelings" ('' vedanā'', affect, valence or hedonic tones), which mainly refers to how one perceives feelings as pleasant, unpleasant or neutral.Sujato (2012), ''A Swift Pair of Messengers'', p. 43. INWARD PATH, Penang – Malaysia. According to Anālayo, mindfulness of feelings "requires recognizing the affective tone of present-moment experience, before the arisen feeling leads to mental reactions and elaborations." It also requires that "one does not get carried away by the individual content of felt experience and instead directs awareness to the general character of experience." The early discourses contain similes which compare feelings to various types of "fierce winds that can suddenly arise in the sky" as well as to "various types of people who stay in a guest house." These similes illustrate the need to remain calm and non-reactive in respect to feelings. In most early sources, feelings are also distinguished between those which are sensual or worldly (lit. "carnal") and those that are not sensual or spiritual in nature.Anālayo (2006), p. 20. This introduces an ethical distinction between feelings that can lead to the arising of defilements and those that lead in the opposite direction."Anālayo (2013), p. 122. Thus, while pleasant feelings associated with sense pleasures lead to unwholesome tendencies, pleasant feelings associated with mental concentration lead towards wholesome states. Meanwhile, a worldly painful feeling might lead to the arising of unwholesome mental states, but it need not do so if one is mindfully aware of it without reacting. Furthermore, certain painful feelings, like those caused by the sadness of knowing one has not yet reached liberation, are considered spiritual unpleasant feelings and can motivate one to practice more. As such, they are commendable. The ''Madhyama-āgama'' version of the ''Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta'' also adds the additional categories of bodily and mental feelings, which refers to feelings that arise either from physical contact or from the mind (a distinction which does appear in other early discourses like the ''Salla-sutta'' SN 36.6 and its parallels). Furthermore, according to Sujato, the ''Ānāpānasati Sutta'' section on ''vedanā'' also adds "rapture" and "mental activities" (''cittasankhāra'', feeling and perception), which "seems to broaden the scope of feelings here as far as ‘emotions’, ‘moods’." Gunaratana similarly states that ''vedanā'' "includes both physical sensations and mental emotions." Furthermore, Anālayo argues that "the central role that feelings have in this respect is particularly evident in the context of the dependent arising (''paṭiccasamuppāda'') of dukkha, where feeling forms the crucial link that can trigger the arising of craving." The fact that dependent origination can be contemplated through mindfulness of feelings is supported by SĀ 290. The early discourses also state that practicing mindfulness of feeling can be a way of dealing with physical pain and disease. Bhikkhu Bodhi notes that feelings arise due to sense contact (''phassa'') and thus another way of analyzing feeling is into six types depending on the six sense bases: eye, nose, tongue, ear, body, and mind.Mindfulness of the mind
In all early sources, the contemplation of the mind or cognition (''one extreme is seeing only what is bad within oneself and consequently getting frustrated, succumbing to feelings of inadequacy. As a result of this, inspiration can get lost and one no longer engages fully in the practice. The other extreme is pretending to oneself (and in front of others) that one is better than one really is, at the cost of ignoring one's own dark sides, those areas of the mind that are in need of purification. Such ignoring allows those dark sides to gather strength until they are able to overwhelm the mind completely. Steering a balanced middle path between these two extremes becomes possible through the simple but effective element of honest recognition, introduced through mindfulness of the present condition of one's mind, which sees both one's shortcomings and one's virtues equally well.This mindfulness is also extended into being aware of the level of mindfulness (or distraction) and concentration present in the mind (from contraction or a lesser mind to higher states such as samadhi and liberation). Anālayo states that the basic task here is "recognizing the degree to which one's practice has developed and realizing if more can be done." Therefore, the terms such as a "small", "lower", "contracted" or "distracted" mind indicate a mind which lacks development in the qualities of mindfulness and samadhi. Other terms such as the "developed," "exalted" and "liberated" mind are referring to a mind that has achieved some level of samadhi and mindfulness (and in some cases, has been at least temporarily liberated from the hindrances through meditation). Sujato states that the terms associated with higher states of mind refer to the jhanas (he cites MN 54.22–24, MN 53.20–22 as support). Anālayo further notes that this element of contemplation of the mind shows that in early Buddhism "enquiring if one has reached some degree of attainment is considered an integral part of knowing the nature of one's own mental condition." In the early discourses (SĀ 1246 and AN 3.100), the gradual process of removing unwholesome thoughts and cultivating wholesome mental states is compared to the gradual refining of gold ore which is initially covered over with rock, sand and fine dust (which represent the various gross and subtle aspects of mental defilement).
Mindfulness of dhammas
Five hindrances and seven aspects of wakefulness
This last set of exercises show considerable variation in the various early Buddhist sources. Only two sets of dhammas ("principles" or "mental categories") are shared by all early sources: theDhamma
"Dhammā" is often translated as "mental objects" but Anālayo argues that this translation is problematic for multiple reasons. The three prior ''satipatthāna'' (body, sensations, mind) can become mental objects in themselves, and those objects, such as the hindrances, aggregates and sense bases, identified under the term ''dhamma'' are far from an exhaustive list of all possible mental objects. Anālayo translates ''dhammā'' as "mental factors and categories," "classificatory schemes," and "frameworks or points of reference to be applied during contemplation". Thanissaro Bhikkhu argues that the fourth satipaṭṭhāna "denotes the qualities of mind that are developed and abandoned as one masters the meditation." Sujato argues that ''dhammā'' here refers to a "distinctive and more profound aspect of meditation: the understanding of the causal principles underlying the development of samādhi." According to Anālayo, this satipaṭṭhāna focuses on phenomena which lead to awakening when cultivated and therefore, it is soteriologically oriented. Anālayo states that the "main thrust" of the fourth satipaṭṭhāna is the path to awakening and therefore, "contemplation of dharmas is somewhat like a shorthand description of the path." He further adds that "the task of mindfulness in the context of contemplation of dharmas would thus be to supervise the mind on the path to awakening, ensuring that the hindrances are overcome and the awakening factors are well established."Five hindrances
According to U Sīlānanda, a proponent of the New Burmese method, the five hindrances are those mental states that hinder or block the mind's progress to deeper concentration and liberation. In the early discourses (see MN 43.20, MN 68.6), the attainment of jhana is associated with the abandonment of the five hindrances, which are said to "choke the mind, robbing understanding of its strength". Through the simile of refining gold, the early discourses state that as long as the hindrances have not been removed "the mind is not soft, nor workable, nor radiant, but is brittle" (AN 5.13). The ''Satipaṭṭhāna sutta'' indicates that one is to be mindful of the presence or absence of each of the five hindrances (sense desire, ill will, sloth-and-torpor, restlessness-and-worry and doubt). The sutta and the MA parallel also state that one should know how a hindrance arises, how it can be removed and how it can be prevented from arising. The fact that mindfulness of the hindrances is also connected to remembering the instructions on how to remove and prevent the hindrances (not just watch it mindfully) is supported by other early discourses like the ''Gopakamoggallāna-sutt''a and its parallels (like MĀ 145). Anālayo thus sees this practice as twofold: the receptive mode of just being aware of the hindrances and the more active mode of understanding how the hindrance arises and how it can be abandoned through a skillful deployment of right effort. According to U Sīlānanda, various hindrances can arise from inappropriate attention/reflection (''ayoniso manasikāra'') and that proper or wise attention (''yoniso manasikāra'') can prevent their arising. Another way to prevent their arising is simply to be mindful of the hindrances. Various early discourses like SĀ 715 provide specific instructions on how to weaken and counter the hindrances. Desire is said to be countered with the contemplation of unattractiveness, ill will is countered with loving-kindness, sloth-torpor is countered with energetic thoughts or perceiving light (or being in a well lit place), restlessness-worry is countered with thoughts that bring calmness and doubt can be countered by contemplating dependent origination or contemplating what is wholesome and what is unwholesome. Suttas like the ''Saṅgārava-sutta'' mention that one benefit of removing the hindrances is an increased ability to learn and to remember what one has learned. The suttas also state that being mindful of the absence of the hindrances leads to joy, an important element of meditation.Seven factors of awakening
The other main contemplation shared by all versions of the ''satipaṭṭhāna'' formula is mindfulness of thePractice
Process view
According to Sujato, Satipaṭṭhāna is "a prescription of how to practice," which "introduces certain specific objects of meditation." Likewise, according to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, the "four frames of reference" (''satipaṭṭhāna'') are "a set of teachings that show where a meditator should focus attention and how." Anālayo and Sujato both note that these four meditation subjects provide a progressive refinement of contemplation from coarse elements (the body) to increasingly subtler and more refined subjects. Likewise, Gethin writes that there is "a movement from clear awareness of the more immediately accessible realms of experience to an awareness of what the Nikayas see as subtler and deeper realms." However, Anālayo also argues that this pattern "does not prescribe the only possible way of practising satipaṭṭhāna," since this would "severely limit the range of one's practice." This is because, "a central characteristic of satipaṭṭhāna is awareness of phenomena as they are, and as they occur. Although such awareness will naturally proceed from the gross to the subtle, in actual practice it will quite probably vary from the sequence depicted in the discourse." Anālayo sees the four satipaṭṭhānas as flexible and mutually supportive practices. Therefore, according to Anālayo "the sequence in which they are practised may be altered in order to meet the needs of each individual meditator." All four may even be combined into a single practice, as documented by the ''Practice instructions
The ''Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta'' states that one first goes to a secluded place, like a forest or an empty hut. U Sīlānanda states that a place away from human habitation and the noises of towns and cities is the most suitable place for ''satipaṭṭhāna'' meditation. The definition of how one practices satipaṭṭhāna in the early texts uses the term ''anupassanā'' which refers to "sustained observation" of each subject of meditation. Anālayo defines this term which is derived from the verb “to see” (''passati'') as meaning “to repeatedly look at”, that is, “to contemplate” or “to closely observe.”Anālayo (2006), p. 32 Furthermore, he interprets this as referring to "a particular way of meditation, an examination of the observed object from a particular viewpoint" which "emphasize how the object is to be perceived" (such as seeing the body as unattractive or impermanent for example). Thanissaro translates ''anupassanā'' as "remaining focused" and “keeping track,” which "denotes the element of concentration in the practice, as one tries to stay with one particular theme in the midst of the welter of experience." All versions of the ''Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta'' also indicate that each satipaṭṭhāna is to be contemplated first "internally" (''ajjhatta''), then "externally" (''bahiddhā''), and finally both internally and externally. This is generally understood as observing oneself and observing other persons, an interpretation which is supported by Abhidharma works (including the ''“Mindful” (satima) literally means being able to remember or recollect. Here it means keeping one's task in mind. The task here is a dual one—remaining focused on one's frame of reference atipaṭṭhāna and putting aside the distractions of greed and distress that would come from shifting one's frame of reference back to the world. In other words, one tries to stay with the phenomenology of immediate experience, without slipping back into the narratives and world views that make up one's sense of the world. In essence, this is a concentration practice, with the three qualities of ardency, alertness, and mindfulness devoted to attaining concentration. Mindfulness keeps the theme of the meditation in mind, alertness observes the theme as it is present to awareness, and also is aware of when the mind has slipped from its theme. Mindfulness then remembers where the mind should be focused, and ardency tries to return the mind to its proper theme—and to keep it there—as quickly and skillfully as possible. In this way, these three qualities help to seclude the mind from sensual preoccupations and unskillful mental qualities, thus bringing it to the first jhana.Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff). ''The Wings to Awakening, An Anthology from the Pali Canon'', Seventh Edition (2013), pp. 75–76.
Auxiliary qualities
In the early texts, the satipaṭṭhānas are said to be practiced with specific mental qualities. This is listed in the Pali version in what Sujato calls the "auxiliary formula" which states that one contemplates (''anupassī'') each satipaṭṭhāna with the following four qualities: ardency or diligence (''ātāpī''), clear comprehension (''sampajāna''), mindfulness (''sati''), and "free from desires and discontent (''vineyya abhijjhādomanassa'')" (with some variation across the different sources).Anālayo (2006), pp. 34–35. In many of the alternative forms of the auxiliary formula, samādhi is mentioned as the result of the practice (e.g. in DN 18.26/DA 4 and in SN 47.8/SA 616). The term ''ātāpī'' is associated with the concept of tapas (ascetic power) and it is said to be related to heroic strength, effort or energy ('' viriya'') in the '' Nettipakarana''. It is thus associated with skillful effort and wholesome desire or resolve. It is best understood as a "balanced but sustained application of energy" according to Anālayo. Thanissaro Bhikkhu defines it as "the factor of effort or exertion...which contains an element of discernment in its ability to distinguish skillful from unskillful mental qualities." U Sīlānanda glosses ''ātāpī'' as "you must be energetic, put forth effort to be mindful." U Sīlānanda (2012), pp. 3–17. The second quality, '' sampajāna,'' means to know something clearly or thoroughly so that one has "the ability to fully grasp or comprehend what is taking place". This can refer to basic forms of knowing (such being aware of one's posture) as well as more discriminative forms of understanding (such as comprehending the five hindrances). According to Thanissaro, this "means being clearly aware of what is happening in the present." According to Gethin, "having removed covetousness and aversion for the world" is associated with the abandoning of the five hindrances as well as with the attainment of the jhanas as can be seen in suttas like MN 125 which directly associate these elements of the path. According to U Sīlānanda, this passage refers to a temporary removal of the five hindrances as a preliminary for meditation." The ''Ekottarika-āgama'' version states that one practices satipaṭṭhāna while "removing evil thoughts and being free from worry and sorrow, one experiences joy in oneself." Anālayo also associates this element with the development of ''samādhi.'' This is supported by the '' Nettippakarana'' (Nett 82) as well as by various suttas which contain a variation of the auxiliary formula which explicitly mentions samadhi such as SN 47.4). Anālayo also notes that the abandonment of covetousness and aversion is associated with the practice of restraint of the senses in the early discourses (such as in MN 39). This is a stage of practice prior to formal meditation, in which "the meditator guards the sense doors in order to prevent sense impressions from leading to desires and discontent." The goal in the initial stages of practice is to develop a sense of "inner equipoise within which desires and discontent are held at bay." Anālayo further notes that "although sense-restraint precedes proper meditation practice in the gradual path scheme, this does not imply that sense-restraint is completed at an exact point in time, only after which one moves on to formal practice. In actual practice the two overlap to a considerable degree." Likewise, Sujato associates this element with "the preliminary subduing" of the five hindrances through sense restraint to prepare the mind for mindfulness meditation.Contemplation of impermanence
The Theravada ''Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta'', as well as the Ekottarika-āgama version preserved in Chinese contain instructions to contemplate the arising and disappearance of the meditation subject (i.e. impermanence, ''anicca''). The Madhyama-āgama version does not contain this instruction, but does mention that on practicing mindfulness "one is endowed with knowledge, vision, understanding, and penetration." Sujato thinks that this instruction to practice contemplation of impermanence reflects a later sectarian development that began to associate satipaṭṭhāna more closely with vipassanā. Analayo on the other hand thinks that contemplation of impermanence (''aniccasaññā'') "should be considered an integral aspect of satipaṭṭhāna practice." He cites the ''Influence
Modern Theravāda
The four satipaṭṭhānas are regarded as fundamental in modern TheravādaThe Buddha taught two systems of meditation, samatha and vipassanā. Samatha was taught before the Buddha (so is not really Buddhist), it is dangerous (because one can easily get attached to the bliss), and it is unnecessary (because vipassanā alone can develop the access samādhi necessary to suppress the hindrances). Vipassanā is the true key to liberation taught by the Buddha. This method was pre-eminently taught in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, the most important discourse taught by the Buddha on meditation and on practice in everyday life. The essence of this practice is the moment-to-moment awareness of the rise and fall of all mind-body phenomena. Thus satipaṭṭhāna and vipassanā are virtually synonyms.Tse-fu Kuan also writes that it is a "widely held opinion in Theravada Buddhism that serenity meditation is not essential for the realization of Nirvana". Kuan cites Theravada authors such as Ven. Rahula, Ven. Silananda and Nyanaponika as figures who support some version of this view.Kuan (2008), pp. 142–143. In contrast to this, Kuan argues that "there is probably no explicit indication in the Canon that one can achieve liberation by the practice of sati alone without the attainment of the jhānas." According to Kuan, this "bare insight" view arose due to "the tendency in the tradition to redefine “liberation by wisdom” (''paññāvimutt''i) as being liberated by insight alone without high meditative attainments, although “liberation by wisdom” originally did not mean so." That liberation by wisdom did not originally mean liberation without jhana has also been argued by
Although satipaṭṭhāna practice is often said to be separate from the practice of jhāna, a number of suttas—such as MN 125 and AN 8:63—equate the successful completion of this first stage f satipaṭṭhāna practicewith the attainment of the first level of jhāna. This point is confirmed by the many suttas—MN 118 among them—describing how the practice of satipaṭṭhāna brings to completion the factors for awakening, which coincide with the factors of jhāna.According to
In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism
The four establishments of mindfulness also known as "the four close placements of mindfulness" (''dran-pa nyer-bzhag'') are also taught in Indo Tibetan Buddhism as they are part of the 37 factors leading to a purified state (''byang-chub yan-lag so-bdun''). They are discussed in Tibetan commentaries on Śāntideva's ''Bodhicaryāvatāra,'' such as Pawo Tsugla Trengwa Rinpoche's 16th century commentary and Kunzang Pelden's (1862–1943) commentary ''The Nectar of Manjushri's Speech''.Weiser, Thomas A. C. (2011"If one practices according to the Hinayana, one meditates on the impurity of the body, on the feelings of sufferings, on the impermanence of consciousness and on the fact that mental objects are "ownerless" (there is no self to which they belong). If one practices according to the Mahayana, during the meditation session one meditates on the same things as being spacelike, beyond all conceptual constructs. In the post-meditation period one considers them as illusory and dreamlike."The general presentation of this practice in the Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tradition focuses on cultivating śamatha first, and then practicing vipaśyanā. Examples of contemporary figures in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism that have taught this practice include Chogyam Trungpa who often taught these practices in the USA and
(1) Contemplating (''blo bzhag pa'') the physical bodies of oneself and others as being characterized by primordial or intrinsic purity (''dag pa''), on the one hand, and by emptiness (''stong pa nyid''), freedom from manifoldness (''spros bral''), great homogeneity (''mnyam pa chen po''), and integrality (''zung du ’jug pa''), on the other, is called ''kāyasmṛtyupasthāna''. (2) Transforming “conceptual constructions whose occurrence one feels/senses (or is aware of)” (''byung tshor gyi rtog pa'') into gnosis characterized by great bliss (''bde ba chen po’i ye shes'') is called ''vedanāsmṛtyupasthāna''. (3) Channelling or containing/constraining (''sdom pa'') all kinds of manifoldness associated with mind and mental factors into/in/to the innate sphere of the luminous nature of the mind is called ''cittasmṛtyupasthāna''. (4) Conducting oneself in a way (or with an attitude) that all saṃsāric and nirvāṇic, universal and particular phenomena are pure and equal and hence beyond adoption or rejection, is ''dharmasmṛtyupasthāna''.
See also
* ''Notes
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Sources
Printed sources
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Further reading
;Theravada * Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2000). ''The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya''. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications. . * Nanamoli, Bhikkhu and Bhikkhu Bodhi (trans.) (1995), ''The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikaya''. Somerville: Wisdom Pubs . * Nyanasatta Thera (2004).External links
*-related discourses in the Pāli Canon: