The Sahrawi, or Saharawi people ( ar, صحراويون '; es, Saharaui), are an
ethnic group and
nation
A nation is a community of people formed on the basis of a combination of shared features such as language, history, ethnicity, culture and/or society. A nation is thus the collective Identity (social science), identity of a group of people unde ...
native to the western part of the
Sahara desert, which includes the
Western Sahara, southern
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
, much of
Mauritania, and along the southwestern border of
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
. They are of mixed
Berber,
Arab and
Black African
Black is a Racialization, racialized classification of people, usually a Politics, political and Human skin color, skin color-based category for specific populations with a mid to dark brown complexion. Not all people considered "black" have ...
descent.
As with most peoples living in the Sahara, the Sahrawi culture is a mix of Arab and indigenous African elements. The modern Sahrawi culture consists of a Berber core and considerable Arab influences. Sahrawis are composed of many tribes and are largely speakers of the
Hassaniya dialect of
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
.
Etymology
The
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
word ' literally means "Inhabitant of the Desert". The word Sahrawi is derived from the Arabic word ' (), meaning desert. A man is called a "Sahrawi", and a woman is called a "Sahrawiya". In other languages it is pronounced in similar or different ways:
*
Berber: ''Aseḥrawi'' or ''Aneẓrofan''
*
English: ''Sahrawi'' or ''Saharawi''
*
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
: ''Saharaui'' (''saharauita'', ''saharauiya'')
*
French: ''Sahraoui''
*
Italian
Italian(s) may refer to:
* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries
** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom
** Italian language, a Romance language
*** Regional Ita ...
: ''Saharaui'', ''Sahraui'', ''Sahrawi'' or ''Saharawi''
*
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
: ''Saarauís''
*
German: Sahraui(s)
History
Early history
Nomadic
Berbers, mainly of the
Senhaja
The Sanhaja ( ber, Aẓnag, pl. Iẓnagen, and also Aẓnaj, pl. Iẓnajen; ar, صنهاجة, ''Ṣanhaja'' or زناگة ''Znaga'') were once one of the largest Berber tribal confederations, along with the Zanata and Masmuda confederations. Many ...
/
Zenaga tribal
The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide usage of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. This definition is contested, in part due to conflic ...
confederation, inhabited the areas now known as
Western Sahara, southern
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
,
Mauritania and southwestern
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
, before
Islam arrived in the 8th century CE. It is not known when the
camel was introduced to the region (probably in the first or second millennium BCE), but it revolutionized the traditional trade routes of
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
. Berber caravans
transported salt, gold, and slaves between North and
West Africa, and the control of trade routes became a major ingredient in the constant power struggles between various tribes and sedentary peoples. On more than one occasion, the Berber tribes of present-day Mauritania, Morocco and Western Sahara would unite behind religious leaders to sweep the surrounding governments from power, then founding principalities, dynasties, or even vast empires of their own. This was the case with the
Almoravid dynasty of Morocco and
Andalusia
Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a "historical nationality". The t ...
, and several
emirate
An emirate is a territory ruled by an emir, a title used by monarchs or high officeholders in the Muslim world. From a historical point of view, an emirate is a political-religious unit smaller than a caliphate. It can be considered equivalen ...
s in Mauritania.
In the 11th century, the
Bedouin tribes of the
Beni Hilal and
Beni Sulaym
The Banu Sulaym ( ar, بنو سليم) is an Arab tribe that dominated part of the Hejaz in the pre-Islamic era. They maintained close ties with the Quraysh of Mecca and the inhabitants of Medina, and fought in a number of battles against the Is ...
emigrated westwards from
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
to the
Maghreb region. In the early 13th century, the Yemeni
Maqil
The Banu Ma'qil ( ar, بنو معقل) was an Arab nomadic tribe that originated in South Arabia. The tribe emigrated to the Maghreb region of North Africa with the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes in the 11th century. They mainly settled in and ...
tribes migrated westwards across the entirety of
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plat ...
and northern Africa, to finally settle around present-day Morocco. They were badly received by the
Zenata Berber descendants of the
Merinid dynasty
The Marinid Sultanate was a Berber Muslim empire from the mid-13th to the 15th century which controlled present-day Morocco and, intermittently, other parts of North Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) and of the southern Iberian Peninsula (Spain) a ...
, and among the tribes pushed out of the territory were the
Beni Hassan
is a Japanese R&B singer, who debuted in 2004 under the Avex Trax label. In 2008, Arashiro left Avex Trax and transferred to Universal Music Japan where she started to perform as simply Beni (stylized as BENI).
She was initially best known fo ...
.
This tribe entered the domains of the
Sanhaja, and over the following centuries imposed itself upon them, intermixing with the population in the process.
Berber attempts to shake off the rule of
Arab warrior tribes occurred sporadically, but assimilation gradually won out, and after the failed
Char Bouba Uprising (1644–74), the Berber tribes would virtually without exception embrace
Arab or
Muslim culture
Islamic culture and Muslim culture refer to cultural practices which are common to historically Islamic people. The early forms of Muslim culture, from the Rashidun Caliphate to the early Umayyad period and the early Abbasid period, were predomi ...
and even claim Arab heritage. The
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
dialect of the
Beni Ḥassān
Beni Ḥassan ( ar, بني حسان "Children of Ḥassān") is a nomadic group of Arabian origin, one of the four sub-tribes of the Maqil Arab tribes who emigrated in the 10th century to the Maghreb with the Bani Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes.
...
,
Hassaniya, remains the mother-tongue of
Mauritania and Moroccan-controlled
Western Sahara to this day, and is also spoken in southern
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
and western
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
, among affiliated tribes.
Berber vocabulary and cultural traits remain common, despite the fact that many if not all of the Sahrawi/Moorish tribes today claim Arab ancestry; several are even claiming to be descendants of
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mo ...
, so-called
sharif
Sharīf ( ar, شريف, 'noble', 'highborn'), also spelled shareef or sherif, feminine sharīfa (), plural ashrāf (), shurafāʾ (), or (in the Maghreb) shurfāʾ, is a title used to designate a person descended, or claiming to be descended, f ...
ian tribes (
pl. ''shorfa'' or ''chorfa'').
The modern day Sahrawi’s are a mixed ethnic group of Arabs, sub-Saharan Africans & diverse Berbers. The people inhabit the westernmost
Sahara desert
, photo = Sahara real color.jpg
, photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972
, map =
, map_image =
, location =
, country =
, country1 =
, ...
, in the area of modern Mauritania, Morocco, Western Sahara, and parts of Algeria. (Some tribes would also traditionally migrate into northern
Mali
Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mal ...
and
Niger, or even further along the
Saharan
caravan routes.) As with most Saharan peoples, the tribes reflect a highly mixed heritage, combining Arab, and other influences, including ethnic and cultural characteristics found in many ethnic groups of the
Sahel. The latter were primarily acquired through mixing with
Wolof,
Soninke and other populations of the southern Sahel, and through the acquisition of slaves by wealthier nomad families.
In pre-colonial times, the Sahara was generally considered ''Blad Essiba'' or "the land of dissidence" by the Moroccan central government and
Sultan of Morocco in
Fez, and by the authorities of the
Deys of
Algiers. The governments of the pre-colonial sub-Saharan empires of
Mali
Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mal ...
and
Songhai appear to have had a similar relationship with the tribal territories, which were once the home of undisciplined raiding tribes and the main trade route for the Saharan
caravan trade
Trans-Saharan trade requires travel across the Sahara between sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa. While existing from prehistoric times, the peak of trade extended from the 8th century until the early 17th century.
The Sahara once had a Green S ...
. Central governments had little control over the region, although the
Hassaniya tribes would occasionally extend "''beya''" or allegiance to prestigious rulers, to gain their political backing or, in some cases, as a religious ceremony. The
Moorish populations of what is today northern Mauritania established a number of emirates, claiming the loyalty of several different tribes and through them exercising semi-sovereignty over traditional grazing lands. This could be considered the closest thing to centralized government that was ever achieved by the Hassaniya tribes, but even these emirates were weak, conflict-ridden and rested more on the willing consent of the subject tribes than on any capacity to enforce loyalty.
European colonialism
Modern distinctions drawn between the various
Hassaniya-speaking Sahrawi-
Moorish groups are primarily political, but cultural differences dating from different colonial and post-colonial histories are also apparent. An important divider is whether the tribal confederations fell under
French or
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
colonial rule.
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
conquered most of
North
North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography.
Etymology
The word ''north ...
and
West Africa largely during the late 19th century. This included
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
and
Mauritania, and, from 1912,
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
. But
Western Sahara and scattered minor parts of
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
fell to
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
, and were named
Spanish Sahara (subdivided into
Río de Oro
Río de Oro (Spanish for "Gold River"; , ''wādī-að-ðahab'', often transliterated as ''Oued Edhahab'') was, with Saguia el-Hamra, one of the two territories that formed the Spanish province of Spanish Sahara after 1969; it had been taken as ...
and
Saguia el-Hamra
Saguia el-Hamra ( es, Saguía el Hamra, ar, الساقية الحمراء, lit=Red Canal, translit=al-Saqiyah al-Hamra'a) was, with Río de Oro, one of the two territories that formed the Spanish province of Spanish Sahara after 1969. Its name ...
) and
Spanish Morocco respectively. These colonial intrusions brought the Muslim Saharan peoples under
Christian Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
an rule for the first time, and created lasting cultural and political divides between and within existing populations, as well as upsetting traditional balances of power in differing ways.
The Sahrawi-
Moorish areas, then still undefined as to exact territorial boundaries, proved troublesome for the colonizers, just as they had for neighbouring dynasties in previous centuries. The political loyalty of these populations were first and foremost to their respective tribes, and supertribal allegiances and alliances would shift rapidly and unexpectedly. Their nomadic lifestyle made direct control over the territories hard to achieve, as did general lawlessness, an absence of prior central authority, and a widely held contempt for the kind of settled life that the colonizers sought to bring about. Centuries of intertribal warfare and raids for loot (''ghazzu'') guaranteed that the populations were well armed and versed in guerilla-style warfare. Tribes allied to hostile European powers would now also be considered fair game for cattle raids on those grounds, which tied the struggle against
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
and
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
into the traditional power play of the nomads, aggravating the internal struggles.
Uprisings and violent tribal clashes therefore took place with increasing frequency as European encroachment increased, and on occasion took the form of anti-colonial holy war, or
Jihad, as in the case of the
Ma al-'Aynayn
Mohamed Mustafa Ma al-'Aynayn (; c. 1830–31 in Oualata, present-day Mauritania – 1910 in Tiznit, Morocco; complete name Mohamad Mustafa ben Mohamad Fadel Maa al-'Aynayn ash-Shanguiti ar, محمد مصطفى بن محمد فاضل ماء ...
uprising in the first years of the 20th century. It was not until the 1930s that
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
was able to finally subdue the interior of present-day
Western Sahara, and then only with strong French military assistance. Mauritania's raiding
Moors
The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages.
Moors are not a distinct or ...
had been brought under control in the previous decades, partly through skilful exploitation by the French of traditional rivalries and social divisions between the tribes. In these encounters, the large
Reguibat tribe
The Reguibat ( ar, الرقيبات; variously transliterated ''Reguibate'', ''Rguibat'', ''R'gaybat'', ''R'gibat'', ''Erguibat'', ''Ergaybat'') is a Sahrawi people, Sahrawi tribe of Sanhaja-Berbers, Berber origins. The Reguibat speak Hassaniya Ar ...
proved especially resistant to the new rulers, and its fighters would regularly slip in out of French and Spanish territory, similarly exploiting the rivalries between European powers. The last major
Reguibat
The Reguibat ( ar, الرقيبات; variously transliterated ''Reguibate'', ''Rguibat'', ''R'gaybat'', ''R'gibat'', ''Erguibat'', ''Ergaybat'') is a Sahrawi tribe of Sanhaja-Berber origins. The Reguibat speak Hassaniya Arabic, and are Arabized ...
raid took place in 1934, after which the Spanish authorities occupied
Smara
Smara ( ar, السمارة ''as-Samāra'', also romanized ''Semara''; es, Esmara) is a city in the Moroccan-controlled part of Western Sahara, with a population of 57,035 recorded in the 2014 Moroccan census. It is served by Smara Airport and Sm ...
, finally gaining control over the last unpatrolled border territories.
The Sahrawi-Moorish tribes remained largely nomadic until the early to mid-20th century, when Franco-Spanish rivalries (as well as disagreements between different wings of the French colonial regime) managed to impose rigid, if arbitrary, borders on the previously fluid Sahara. The wide-ranging
grazing lands of the nomads were split apart, and their traditional economies, based on trans-Saharan
caravan trade and raiding of each other and the northern and southern
Sahel neighbors, were broken. Little attention was paid to existing tribal confederations and zones of influence when dividing up the Saharan interior.
Different colonial practices
French and Spanish colonial governments would gradually, and with varying force, impose their own systems of government and education over these territories, exposing the native populations to differing colonial experiences. The populations in
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
were subjected to direct French rule, which was organized to enable the massive settlement of French and European immigrants. In
Mauritania, they experienced a French non-settler colonial administration which, if light in its demands on the nomads, also deliberately overturned the existing social order, allying itself with lower-ranking
marabout and
zenaga tribes against the powerful warrior clans of the
Hassane Arabs. In southern Morocco, France upheld indirect rule through the
sultanate
This article includes a list of successive Islamic states and Muslim dynasties beginning with the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE) and the early Muslim conquests that spread Islam outside of the Arabian Peninsula, and continuin ...
in some areas, while
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
exercised direct administration in others.
Spanish Sahara was treated first as a colony, and later as an overseas province, with gradually tightening political conditions, and, in later years, a rapid influx of
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Can ...
settlers (making
Spaniards about 20% of the population in 1975). By the time of decolonization in 1950s–1970s, Sahrawi tribes in all these different territories had experienced roughly a generation or more of distinct experiences; often, however, their nomadic lifestyle had guaranteed that they were subjected to less interference than what sedentary populations experienced in the same areas.
Debate on pre-colonial allegiances
The period of
colonization radically changed existing power structures, leaving a confused legacy of contradictory political affiliations, European-drawn borders with little resemblance to ethnic and tribal realities, and the foundations of modern political conflict.
For example, both sides in the
Western Sahara conflict
The Western Sahara conflict is an ongoing conflict between the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic/ Polisario Front and the Kingdom of Morocco. The conflict originated from an insurgency by the Polisario Front against Spanish colonial forces ...
(
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
vs. the
Polisario Front
The Polisario Front, Frente Polisario, Frelisario or simply Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Río de Oro), (in ar, rtl=yes, الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير الس� ...
) draw heavily on colonial history to prove their version of reality. Proponents of the
Greater Morocco
Greater Morocco is a label historically used by some Moroccan nationalist political leaders protesting against Spanish, Portuguese, Algerian and French rule, to refer to wider territories historically associated with the Moroccan sultan. Curre ...
ideology point to some Sahrawi tribes calling upon the
Moroccan sultan, who until 1912 remained the last independent Islamic ruler of the area, for assistance against the Europeans (see
Ma al-'Aynayn
Mohamed Mustafa Ma al-'Aynayn (; c. 1830–31 in Oualata, present-day Mauritania – 1910 in Tiznit, Morocco; complete name Mohamad Mustafa ben Mohamad Fadel Maa al-'Aynayn ash-Shanguiti ar, محمد مصطفى بن محمد فاضل ماء ...
). Pro-
independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
Sahrawis, on the other hand, point out that such statements of allegiance were almost routinely given by various tribal leaders to create short-term alliances, and that other heads of tribes indeed similarly proclaimed allegiance to
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
, to
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
, to
Mauritanian emirates, and indeed to each other; they argue that such arrangements always proved temporary, and that the tribal confederations always maintained ''de facto'' independence of central authority, and would even fight to maintain this independence.
The
International Court of Justice issued a
ruling on the matter in 1975, stating that there ''had'' existed ties between the
Moroccan sultan and some (mainly northerly
Tekna
The Tekna () is a semi-nomadic Sahrawi tribal confederation of Lamta Sanhaja Berber and Arab Hassani origins. Its constituents today inhabit southern Morocco and northern Western Sahara, but traditionally with wider migration routes. Nowadays, i ...
) tribes in then-
Spanish Sahara, but that these ties were ''not'' sufficient to abrogate
Western Sahara's right to
self-determination. The same kind of ruling was issued with regard to
Mauritania, where the court found that there were indeed strong tribal and cultural links between the Sahrawis and
Mauritanian populations, including historical allegiance to some
Moorish emirates, but that these were not ties of a state or government character, and did not constitute formal bonds of sovereignty. Thus, the court recommended the
UN to continue to pursue
self-determination for the Sahrawis, enabling them to choose for themselves whether they wanted
Spanish Sahara to turn into an independent state, or to be annexed to Morocco or Mauritania.
Decolonisation attempts
The Western Sahara conflict
The area today referred to as
Western Sahara remains, according to the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
, one of the world's last remaining major
non-self-governing territories.
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
controls most of the territory as its
Southern Provinces
The Southern Provinces ( ar, الأقاليم الجنوبية, Al-Aqalim al-Janubiyah, french: Provinces du Sud) or Moroccan Sahara ( ar, الصحراء المغربية, Assahra al-Maghribiya, french: Sahara marocain) are the terms used by th ...
, but the legality of this is not internationally recognized by any country and is disputed militarily by the
Polisario Front
The Polisario Front, Frente Polisario, Frelisario or simply Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Río de Oro), (in ar, rtl=yes, الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير الس� ...
, an
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
n-backed movement claiming
independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
for the territory as the
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (; SADR; also romanized with Saharawi; ar, الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الديمقراطية ' es, República Árabe Saharaui Democrática), also known as Western Sahara, is a ...
(SADR). Since 1991, there has been a
cease-fire between Morocco and Polisario, but
disturbances in Moroccan-held territories as well as the ongoing dispute over the legal status of the territory guarantees continued
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
involvement and occasional international attention to the issue.
* ''For more on this conflict, see
Western Sahara conflict
The Western Sahara conflict is an ongoing conflict between the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic/ Polisario Front and the Kingdom of Morocco. The conflict originated from an insurgency by the Polisario Front against Spanish colonial forces ...
.''
* ''For more on Sahrawis/Moors in
Mauritania,
Algeria
)
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, and
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
, see their respective entries.''
The Polisario Front
The
Polisario Front
The Polisario Front, Frente Polisario, Frelisario or simply Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Río de Oro), (in ar, rtl=yes, الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير الس� ...
is the
Western Sahara's national liberation movement, fighting for the independence of the Western Sahara since 1973—originally against Spanish rule; after 1975, against Mauritania and Morocco; since 1979, against Morocco only. The organization is based in
Algeria
)
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, where it is responsible for the
Tindouf
Tindouf (Berber: Tinduf, ar, تندوف) is the main town, and a commune in Tindouf Province, Algeria, close to the Mauritanian, Western Saharan and Moroccan borders. The commune has population of around 160,000 but the census and population ...
refugee camps. The organization has maintained a
cease-fire with
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
since 1991 (see
Settlement Plan
The Settlement Plan was an agreement between the ethnically Saharawi Polisario Front and Morocco on the organization of a referendum, which would constitute an expression of self-determination for the people of Western Sahara, leading either to ...
), but continues to strive for the territory's independence as the
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (; SADR; also romanized with Saharawi; ar, الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الديمقراطية ' es, República Árabe Saharaui Democrática), also known as Western Sahara, is a ...
(SADR) through peaceful negotiations. The Polisario Front restricts its claims to the colonially-defined Western Sahara, holding no claim to, for example, the Sahrawi-populated
Tarfaya Strip in Morocco, or any part of
Mauritania. Since 1979, the Polisario Front has been recognized by the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmoniz ...
as the representative of the people of Western Sahara.
Demographics
Ethnic background: Berbers and Arabs
As described above, the
Hassaniya speaking tribes are of
Arabian,
Beni Hassan
is a Japanese R&B singer, who debuted in 2004 under the Avex Trax label. In 2008, Arashiro left Avex Trax and transferred to Universal Music Japan where she started to perform as simply Beni (stylized as BENI).
She was initially best known fo ...
descent, who fused with the dominant
Sanhaja Berber tribes, as well as
Black African
Black is a Racialization, racialized classification of people, usually a Politics, political and Human skin color, skin color-based category for specific populations with a mid to dark brown complexion. Not all people considered "black" have ...
and other
indigenous
Indigenous may refer to:
*Indigenous peoples
*Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention
*Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band
*Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...
populations (e.g. indigenous
Soninke speaking groups). Even though cultural arabization of the Berber people was thorough, some elements of Berber identity remain.
Some tribes, such as the large
Reguibat
The Reguibat ( ar, الرقيبات; variously transliterated ''Reguibate'', ''Rguibat'', ''R'gaybat'', ''R'gibat'', ''Erguibat'', ''Ergaybat'') is a Sahrawi tribe of Sanhaja-Berber origins. The Reguibat speak Hassaniya Arabic, and are Arabized ...
, have a Berber background but have since been thoroughly arabized; others, such as the
Oulad Delim
The Oulad Delim () are a Bedouin Sahrawi tribe of Arab descent which originated in Yemen. They are descended from Delim bin Hassan, who was from the Ma'qili tribe of Beni Hassan which settled in the Sahara in the 12th century. They were formerly ...
, are considered descendants of the
Beni Hassan
is a Japanese R&B singer, who debuted in 2004 under the Avex Trax label. In 2008, Arashiro left Avex Trax and transferred to Universal Music Japan where she started to perform as simply Beni (stylized as BENI).
She was initially best known fo ...
, even though intermarriage with other tribes and former slaves have occurred; a few, such as the
Tekna tribal confederation, have retained some Berber dialect of the area. Often, though not in the case of the Tekna, the Berber-Arab elements of a tribe's cultural heritage reflects social stratification. In traditional Moorish-Sahrawi society, Arab tribes of the Tekna confederation claimed a role as rulers and protectors of the disarmed weaker Berber tribes of the Takna confederation. Thus, the warrior tribes and nobility would be Arab.
However, most tribes, regardless of their mixed heritage, tend to claim some form of Arab ancestry, as this has been key to achieving social status. Many (the so-called
chorfa tribes) will also claim descendancy from the
Prophet Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mo ...
himself. In any case, no tribal identity is cut in stone, and over the centuries a great deal of intermarriage and tribal re-affiliation has occurred to blur former ethnic/cultural lines; groups have often seamlessly re-identified to higher status identities, after achieving the military or economic strength to defeat former rulers. This was, for example, the case of the largest of the Sahrawi tribes, the
Reguibat
The Reguibat ( ar, الرقيبات; variously transliterated ''Reguibate'', ''Rguibat'', ''R'gaybat'', ''R'gibat'', ''Erguibat'', ''Ergaybat'') is a Sahrawi tribe of Sanhaja-Berber origins. The Reguibat speak Hassaniya Arabic, and are Arabized ...
. A Berber-descended
zawiya (scholarly) tribe who in the 18th century took up
camel nomadism and warrior traditions, they simultaneously took on more and more of an
Arab identity, reflecting their new position alongside the traditional warrior castes of Arab Hassane origin, such as the Oulad Delim and the Arabic-speaking tribes of the Tekna confederation.
Social and ethnic hierarchy
Generally speaking, the Hassaniya populations were (or are) divided into several groups, of different social status.
At the peak of society were the
aristocratic
Aristocracy (, ) is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocrats. The term derives from the el, αριστοκρατία (), meaning 'rule of the best'.
At the time of the word' ...
"warrior" lineages or
clans, the
Hassane, supposed descendants of the Beni Hassan Arab tribe (cf.
Oulad Delim
The Oulad Delim () are a Bedouin Sahrawi tribe of Arab descent which originated in Yemen. They are descended from Delim bin Hassan, who was from the Ma'qili tribe of Beni Hassan which settled in the Sahara in the 12th century. They were formerly ...
). Below them stood the "scholarly" or "clerical" lineages. These were called
marabout or
zawiya tribes (cf.
Oulad Tidrarine). The latter designation the preferred one in among the Western Sahara-centered tribes, who would also almost invariably claim
chorfa status to enhance their religious credibility. The zawiya tribes were protected by Hassan overlords in exchange for their religious services and payment of the
horma, a tributary tax in
cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus ''Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult ma ...
or goods; while they were in a sense exploited, the relationship was often more or less symbiotic. Under both these groups, but still part of the Western Sahara society, stood the
znaga
The Sanhaja ( ber, Aẓnag, pl. Iẓnagen, and also Aẓnaj, pl. Iẓnajen; ar, صنهاجة, ''Ṣanhaja'' or زناگة ''Znaga'') were once one of the largest Berbers, Berber tribal confederations, along with the Zenata, Zanata and Masmuda con ...
tribes—tribal groups labouring in demeaning occupations, such as
fishermen
A fisher or fisherman is someone who captures fish and other animals from a body of water, or gathers shellfish.
Worldwide, there are about 38 million commercial and subsistence fishers and fish farmers. Fishers may be professional or recreati ...
(cf.
Imraguen), as well as peripheral semi-tribal groups working in the same fields (among them the "professional" castes,
mallemin The mallemin (also maalemine, muallemin etc.; derived from a plural of the Arabic language, Arabic word ''mu`allim'', meaning approximately "sir" or "teacher") were a professional caste of blacksmiths and metalworkers within Hassaniya Arab society, ...
and
igawen
A griot (; ; Manding: jali or jeli (in N'Ko: , ''djeli'' or ''djéli'' in French spelling); Serer: kevel or kewel / okawul; Wolof: gewel) is a West African historian, storyteller, praise singer, poet, and/or musician.
The griot is a repos ...
). All these groups were considered to be among the ''bidan'' grouping.
Below them ranked servile groups known as
Haratin
Haratin (), also referred to as Haratine, Harratin (singular: Hartani), are an ethnic group found in western Sahel and southwestern Maghreb. The Haratin are mostly found in modern Mauritania (where they form a plurality), Morocco, Western Sahar ...
, according to some sources descendants of the earlier pre-Arab populations. (Note that "Haratin", a term of obscure origin, has a different meaning in the Berber regions of Morocco.) They often lived serving affiliated ''bidan'' families, and as such formed part of the tribe, not tribes of their own. Below them came the slaves themselves, who were owned individually or in family groups, and could hope at best to be freed and rise to the status of Haratin. Rich bidan families would normally own a few slaves at the most, as nomadic societies have less use of slave labour than sedentary societies; however, in some cases, slaves were used to work
oasis plantations, farming
dates, digging
wells etc.
An important reference on Sahrawi population ethnography is the work of Spanish anthropologist
Julio Caro Baroja
Julio Caro Baroja (13 November 1914 – 18 August 1995) was a Spanish anthropologist, historian, linguist and essayist. He was known for his special interest in Basque culture, Basque history and Basque society. Of Basque ancestry, he was the ...
, who in 1952–53 spent several months among native tribes of the
Spanish Sahara. He published a 1955 book on the subject.
Population
According to the Ethnologue database, there were more than three million
Hassaniya speakers in 2006, of whom 2.7 million resided in Mauritania. The number of Hassaniya speakers identifying as ''Sahrawi'' in the modern political sense is unknown, and estimates are hotly contested by partisans in the Western Sahara conflict. Most estimates however center around 200,000 to 400,000. These populations are centered in southern Morocco, Western Sahara, and in the
Tindouf Province of Algeria, where large number of
refugees from Western Sahara are located.
Languages
Sahrawis' native language is the
Hassānīya, a variety of Arabic originally spoken by the
Beni Hassan
is a Japanese R&B singer, who debuted in 2004 under the Avex Trax label. In 2008, Arashiro left Avex Trax and transferred to Universal Music Japan where she started to perform as simply Beni (stylized as BENI).
She was initially best known fo ...
Arabian tribes of the Western
Sahara. It has almost completely replaced the Berber languages originally spoken in this region. Though clearly a western dialect, Hassānīya is relatively distant from other North African variants of Arabic. Its geographical location exposed it to influence from
Zenaga and
Wolof. There are several dialects of Hassaniya; the primary differences among them are phonetics. Today Hassaniya is spoken in south-western Algeria, northern Mali, Mauritania, southern-Morocco and Western Sahara. (Mauritania has the biggest concentration of speakers) . Some Sahrawis speak
Tashelhit and/or
Moroccan Arabic as a second language due to interaction with neighboring populations.
Modern Standard Arabic and the
Amazigh language
The Berber languages, also known as the Amazigh languages or Tamazight,, ber, label=Tuareg Tifinagh, ⵜⵎⵣⵗⵜ, ) are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They comprise a group of closely related languages spoken by Berber commun ...
(a standardized version of Moroccan Berber languages) is the official language of the Moroccan administered part of Western Sahara. While
Standard Arabic is the only official language in
Mauritania,
Algeria
)
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and the
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (; SADR; also romanized with Saharawi; ar, الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الديمقراطية ' es, República Árabe Saharaui Democrática), also known as Western Sahara, is a ...
.
The current Moroccan constitution (adopted in July 2011) mentions, in its 5th article, the Hassaniya language and recommends its preservation as a cultural heritage of Morocco.
Due to the past colonization of
Western Sahara and
Cape Juby by Spain, Spanish is spoken as a lingua franca by most of the Sahrawis, especially among the Sahrawi diaspora, with the
Sahrawi Press Service
Sahara Press Service (SPS) is the multi-lingual official press agency of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, the government in exile of the Western Sahara. The agency mainly report government-related news and current Sahrawi affairs, both from ...
, official news service of the
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (; SADR; also romanized with Saharawi; ar, الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الديمقراطية ' es, República Árabe Saharaui Democrática), also known as Western Sahara, is a ...
, being available in Spanish since 2001 and the
Sahara Film Festival, Western Sahara's only film festival, showing mainly Spanish-language films.
The refugees
After the
Madrid Accords
The Madrid Accords, formally the Declaration of Principles on Western Sahara, was a treaty between Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania setting out six principles which would end the Spanish presence in the territory of Spanish Sahara and arrange a t ...
which transferred administration of the
Spanish Sahara to Mauritania and Morocco in 1976, an exodus of refugees fled the violence that ensued, with substantial numbers ending up in the
Polisario Front
The Polisario Front, Frente Polisario, Frelisario or simply Polisario, from the Spanish abbreviation of (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Río de Oro), (in ar, rtl=yes, الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير الس� ...
movement's base areas in the
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
n Sahara, where
refugee camps were set up in the
Tindouf Province, and a smaller number in camps in
Mauritania. The
camps in Tindouf were named after towns in the Western Sahara (Awserd, Laayoune, Smara and Dakhla).
Algerian authorities have estimated the number of Sahrawi refugees in Algeria to be 165,000. For many years this figure was referred to by
UNCHR, but in 2005 the organization reduced the number of "''vulnerable refugees''" to 90,000, until a
census
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring, recording and calculating information about the members of a given population. This term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses in ...
to determine the exact number of refugees in the camps could be done.
The Moroccan government contends that the figure is much lower, around 45,000 to 50,000, and that these people are kept in the refugee camps against their will by Polisario.
Mauritania houses about 26,000 Sahrawi refugees,
classified by UNHCR as "people in a refugee-like situation".
This population consists both of original refugees to the territory, and of former Tindouf dwellers who have since migrated to Mauritania.
Additionally, between 3,000 and 12,000 Sahrawis live in Spain, their former colonizer.
In 2018, thirty Sahrawi refugees died in an
air crash of Algerian Air Force Il-76. They had been visiting Algiers for various medical and bureaucratic reasons. Sahrawis from the refugee camps are regularly provided with free flights in Algerian
military transport aircraft
A military transport aircraft, military cargo aircraft or airlifter is a military-owned transport aircraft used to support military operations by airlifting troops and military equipment. Transport aircraft are crucial to maintaining supply ...
.
Culture
Religion
Religiously, the Sahrawis are
Sunni Muslims of the
Maliki rite or school. Historically, religious practice has been pragmatically adapted to nomad life and local tradition. Also, since the late medieval period, various
Sufi ''Turuq'' (brotherhoods or orders), have played an important role in popular religious practice; the most important among these are the
Qadiriyya and
Tijaniyya. Further, among the Hassaniya tribes, certain lineages reputed to be descended from the Prophet Mohammed, the
chorfa, have played an important role in intertribal religious society.
[Western Sahara?](_blank)
30-days.net
Tribalism
:''See article on
tribalism
Tribalism is the state of being organized by, or advocating for, tribes or tribal lifestyles. Human evolution has primarily occurred in small hunter-gatherer groups, as opposed to in larger and more recently settled agricultural societies or civ ...
and the
list of Sahrawi tribes.
The
tribe was the historical basis of social and political organisation among the Hassaniya-speaking tribes of the Sahara, well into the colonial and arguably post-colonial period. Traditionally, Hassaniya Sahrawi society was completely tribal, organized in a complex web of shifting alliances and tribal confederations, with no stable and centralized governing authority.
Lawmaking, conflict resolution and central decision-making within the tribe, was carried out by the
Djema'a
The term Djema'a (or Djemaa, meaning "Congregation" or "Gathering" in Arabic) can refer to two things in a Western Sahara context.
Djema'a: tribal leadership
The Djema'a was the leading body in a Sahrawi tribe, composed of elders and elected le ...
, (Arabic, gathering) a gathering of elected elders (
shaykhs) and religious scholars. Occasionally, larger tribal gatherings could be held in the form of the Ait Arbein (Group of Forty), which would handle supratribal affairs such as common defence of the territory or common
diplomacy
Diplomacy comprises spoken or written communication by representatives of states (such as leaders and diplomats) intended to influence events in the international system.Ronald Peter Barston, ''Modern diplomacy'', Pearson Education, 2006, p. ...
. During colonial times, Spain attempted to assume some of the legitimacy of these traditional institutions by creating its own Djema'a, a state-run political association that supported its claims to the territory.
Notable people
*
Al Khadra Mabrook
Al Khadra Mint Mabrook (; - October 2021), known as Al Khadra, was an internationally recognised Sahrawi poet.
Biography
Al Khadra was born circa 1934 in Tiris. Her family were Bedouin and her childhood was spent moving through the region ...
*
Hadjatu Aliat Swelm
Hadjatu Aliat Swelm, Arabic: حجاتو عليات سويلم (born 1973) is a Sahrawi poet, whose work examines the role of women in Sahrawi culture.
Biography
Swelm was born in the Sagir Valley, Western Sahara. She has written poetry through ...
*
Saida Charaf
Saida Charaf (born 1960) is a Moroccan Sahrawi singer. She is considered one of the most prominent female singers of Sahrawi music.
Career
Saida Charaf was born in Laayoune .
In the late 1990s, she studied Arabic literature and humanities in ...
See also
*
Sahrawi refugees
*
Bedouin
*
Cape Juby
*
Green March
The Green March was a strategic mass demonstration in November 1975, coordinated by the Moroccan government, to force Spain to hand over the disputed, autonomous semi-metropolitan province of Spanish Sahara to Morocco. At that time, the Span ...
*
History of Western Sahara
The history of Western Sahara can be traced back to the times of Carthaginian explorer Hanno the Navigator in the 5th century BC. Though few historical records are left from that period, Western Sahara's modern history has its roots linked to som ...
*
List of Spanish colonial wars in Morocco
{{Spanish-Moroccan conflicts
There have been several Hispano-Moroccan wars:
* Conquest of Melilla (1497)
* Conquest of Mehdya (1681)
* Siege of Larache (1689)
* Siege of Melilla (1774)
* Siege of Ceuta (1790-1791)
* Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–18 ...
*
James Riley (Captain)
References
Western Sahara conflict
* Hodges, Tony (1983), ''Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War'', Lawrence Hill Books ()
* Jensen, Erik (2005), ''Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate'', International Peace Studies ()
* Mercer, John (1976), ''Spanish Sahara'', George Allen & Unwid Ltd ()
* Norris, H.T. (1986), ''The Arab Conquest of the Western Sahara'', Longman Publishing Group ()
* Pazzanita, Anthony G. and Hodges, Tony (1994), ''Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara'', Scarecrow Press ()
* Shelley, Toby (2004), ''Endgame in the Western Sahara: What Future for Africa's Last Colony?'', Zed Books ()
* Thobhani, Akbarali (2002), ''Western Sahara Since 1975 Under Moroccan Administration: Social, Economic, and Political Transformation'', Edwin Mellen Press ()
* Thompson, Virginia and Adloff, Richard (1980), ''The Western Saharans. Background to Conflict'', Barnes & Noble Books ()
External links
"Pueblo saharaui" (Enrique Torán, 1977)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sahrawi People
Ethnic groups in Algeria
Ethnic groups in Mauritania
Ethnic groups in Morocco
Ethnic groups in Western Sahara
History of Mauritania
African nomads
Tribes of Arabia
Arabs
Arabized Berbers
Berber peoples and tribes
Muslim communities in Africa