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ancient Roman religion Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, ...
, ''sacra'' (Latin, neuter plural, "sacred atters) were transactions relating to the worship of the gods, especially sacrifice and prayer. They are either ''sacra privata'' or ''publica''. The former were undertaken on behalf of the individual by himself, on behalf of the family by the
pater familias The ''pater familias'', also written as ''paterfamilias'' (plural ''patres familias''), was the head of a Roman family. The ''pater familias'' was the oldest living male in a household, and could legally exercise autocratic authority over his ext ...
, or on behalf of the ''
gens In ancient Rome, a gens ( or , ; plural: ''gentes'' ) was a family consisting of individuals who shared the same nomen and who claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens was called a ''stirps'' (plural: ''stirpes''). The ''gen ...
'' by the whole body of the people.


Sacra privata

The centre of the domestic service of the gods is formed by the worship of the
Penates In ancient Roman religion, the Di Penates () or Penates ( ) were among the ''dii familiares'', or household deities, invoked most often in domestic rituals. When the family had a meal, they threw a bit into the fire on the hearth for the Penates. ...
and
Lares Lares ( , ; archaic , singular ''Lar'') were guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. Their origin is uncertain; they may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, or fruitfulness, or an amalgam of these. Lare ...
. In particular cases recourse was also had to certain specified deities. Besides this, private sacra were attached to particular families; these passed to the heir with the succession and became a burden on him. Hence an inheritance without sacra 'hereditas sine sacris''proverbially signified an unimpaired piece of good fortune. If a patrician wished to become a
plebeian In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words "commoners". Both classes were hereditary. Etymology The precise origins o ...
he had to renounce his familial sacra, his gens and his
curia Curia (Latin plural curiae) in ancient Rome referred to one of the original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally likely had wider powers, they came ...
. As the family had sacra, so also had the gens, which had arisen out of the family by expansion. These were performed by a sacrificial priest
flamen A (plural ''flamens'' or ''flamines'') was a priest of the ancient Roman religion who was assigned to one of eighteen deities with official cults during the Roman Republic. The most important of these were the three (or "major priests"), who s ...
appointed from among the gentiles, the celebration taking place in his own house or in a special
sacellum In ancient Roman religion, a ''sacellum'' is a small shrine. The word is a diminutive from ''sacrum'' (neuter of ''sacer'', "belonging to a god"). The numerous ''sacella'' of ancient Rome included both shrines maintained on private properties by fa ...
in the presence of the assembled gentiles. Sacra Privata typically takes place within the family. An individual might perform sacra at any time and whenever they thought it necessary; but if he vowed such sacra before the pontiffs and wished that they should be continued after his death, his heirs inherited with his property the obligation to perform them, and the pontiffs had to watch that they were performed duly and at their proper time. Even though Sacra could take place at any time, however, the devout Roman prayed and made a sacrifice typically during meal times. The usual time was between dinner and dessert. When possible, a pig was sacrificed. Proper ceremonies accompanied all family occasions from birth to death, even when the gods were no longer popular. The
gens In ancient Rome, a gens ( or , ; plural: ''gentes'' ) was a family consisting of individuals who shared the same nomen and who claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens was called a ''stirps'' (plural: ''stirpes''). The ''gen ...
of families had special rites, sacra. It must be maintained for the welfare of the clan and State. If not, it was believed that gods will become displeased with the
pater familias The ''pater familias'', also written as ''paterfamilias'' (plural ''patres familias''), was the head of a Roman family. The ''pater familias'' was the oldest living male in a household, and could legally exercise autocratic authority over his ext ...
. In return, their supposed underworld relatives, the malicious and vagrant
Lemures The lemures were shades or spirits of the restless or malignant dead in Roman religion, and are probably cognate with an extended sense of larvae (from Latin ''larva'', "mask") as disturbing or frightening. ''Lemures'' is the more common liter ...
, might be placated with midnight offerings of black beans and spring water. Fo
home sacrifices
citizens would usually use foods instead of animals because they were less messy. However, it was not unheard of. Many families would use small animals for their blood sacrifices. Some foods that they would use were wine, cheese, fruits, milk, honey cakes, honeycombs, and grapes. Families would also use incense, fire, or wreaths if they wanted a sacrifice that was more permanent. Romans would use sacrifices that represented life. If their ancestors became angry, they would placate them with an offering of black beans and spring water at midnight.
Lares Lares ( , ; archaic , singular ''Lar'') were guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. Their origin is uncertain; they may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, or fruitfulness, or an amalgam of these. Lare ...
, a household protector, was housed in a shrine along with the penates and favorite gods or goddesses. In the homes of the lower class, the shrines were set in wall-niches with a basic painted background, whereas the upper class, built their shrines in the servants quarters. This kept the focus on religion instead of making it a public showing.


Sacra publica

The sacra publica were undertaken pro populo, i.e., collectively, (1) by the curia, pagi, or vici, into which the community was divided, whence such sacrifices were called sacra popularia; or (2) by the individual gentes and societies, i.e., the sodalitas, to which the superintendence of a particular cult had been committed by the State; or (3) by the magistrates and priests of the
Roman State In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC ...
. The sacra of the gentes were with few exceptions performed in public, though the multitude present remained silent spectators; only in a few cases they took part in the procession to the place of worship or in the sacrificial feast. The public religious practices of Ancient Rome served multiple purposes due to the nature of its religion. In ancient Rome, religion and the affairs of the state were closely intertwined so that the state religion was a mode of political power.Gordon, Richard. "The Veil of Power." Paul and Empire Religion and Power in Roman Imperial society. Ed. Richard A. Horsley. Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1997. 126. Print. Religious
rituals A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized, ...
and festivals were often held in order to calm and distract the people. This can be seen through the establishment of the Apollinares around the time of the
Second Punic War The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of three wars fought between Carthage and Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For 17 years the two states struggled for supremacy, primarily in Ital ...
.Scullard, H. H. Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981. Print These public affairs were meant to honor the gods by either consisting of sporting competitions, such as the Apollinares, or religious rituals. When these rituals consisted of sacrifice, they were controlled by the Emperor and the ElitesAngus, S. The Religious Quests of the Graeco-Roman World. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1929. Print. The correct practice of rituals, or
orthopraxis In the study of religion, orthopraxy is correct conduct, both ethical and liturgical, as opposed to faith or grace. Orthopraxy is in contrast with orthodoxy, which emphasizes correct belief. The word is a neoclassical compound— () meaning ' ...
was essential to currying favor of the gods.Schied, J. (2008) "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors," in A Companion to Roman Religion (ed J. Rüpke), Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK. doi: 10.1002/9780470690970.ch19 Public ceremonies were presided over by some sort of authority from the higher
social class A social class is a grouping of people into a set of hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes. Membership in a social class can for example be dependent on education, wealth, occupation, inc ...
over public affairs, and in some rare cases specifically women. The presider would begin the ceremony at the start of the day and bathe himself or herself thoroughly beforehand. Any civilians in attendance would wear togas with a hood over their heads while the presider was bareheaded, often with a laurel wreath on his head for distinction. In live sacrifices, only domestic animals were used. These animals were cleaned and often decorated with ribbons or garlands with colors dependent on the god or goddess for whom they were intended.Faraone, Christopher A., and F. S. Naiden. "Greek and Roman Animal Sacrifice: Ancient Victims, Modern Observers." University of Iowa Libraries. Cambridge University Press, 2012. Web. 19 Nov. 2013 The Romans would also use fruit and grains in public ceremonies as well as libations or drinks. These inanimate sacrifices were not less significant than live animal sacrifices, but rather they all served different purposes and went to different
deities A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...
.


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sacra Ancient Roman religion